Removal of emerging drugs of addiction by wastewater treatment and water recycling processes and impacts on effluent-associated environmental risk.
Drugs of addiction, have been recognized as potential contaminants of concern to the environment. Effluent wastewater discharge is a major source of contamination to aquatic receiving environments. A year-long monitoring program was undertaken in Australia to characterise the fate of four emerging drugs of addiction: methamphetamine; MDMA; pharmaceutical opioids: codeine and morphine and a metabolite: benzoylecgonine in four wastewater treatment plants operating with different secondary treatment technologies: conventional activated sludge (CAS), membrane bioreactors (MBR), integrated fixed-film AS (IFAS) and sequencing batch reactor (SBR). The effect of subsequent tertiary treatment (coagulation/flocculation) on the removal efficiency was also assessed. Drugs were detected in influent and effluent samples (mean concentration ranged from 43-4777 and 17-1721 ng/L, respectively). Treated effluents had noticeably lower levels compared to raw influents. Removal efficiency of compounds depended on the secondary treatment employed, with IFAS and MBR performing the best with significant removal of compounds (≈90%) followed by CAS (54-96%) and lastly SBR (42-83%). Despite the low levels of drugs measured after the secondary treatment, near complete removal after tertiary treatment (≈99%) was recorded, which demonstrated the effectiveness of using the coagulation/flocculation process as an effective step for enhancing the removal efficiency. The levels of drugs were at a low level in the effluents released into the environment and used for recycling and all posed a low environmental risk in urban water courses based on the risk assessment. The information given here provides new and useful information to the water industry and regulators on the efficiency of drug removal in a range of wastewater treatment configurations.
Yadav MK
，Short MD
，Gerber C
，Awad J
，van den Akker B
，Saint CP
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Drugs of abuse in wastewater and suspended particulate matter--further developments in sewage epidemiology.
This manuscript reports, for the first time, a monitoring study analysing wastewater and associated suspended particulate matter (SPM) to determine the concentration of drugs of abuse and metabolites in wastewater influent. The monitoring of SPM is crucial for target analytes because, depending on their physico-chemical properties, they may partition to particulates; thus, analysis of wastewater only will result in under-reporting of the concentration of target analytes in the sample. A daily one week monitoring study was carried out at a WWTP serving one of the largest cities in the Czech Republic; representing the first comprehensive application of the sewage epidemiology approach in the Czech Republic. In total, 60 analytes were targeted in the monitoring programme including stimulants, opioid and morphine derivatives, benzodiazepines, antidepressants, dissociative anaesthetics, drug precursors and their metabolites. Analysis of SPM determined that significant proportions of some compounds were present on the solids. For example, 21.0-49.8% of the total concentration of EDDP (2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine) in the sample was determined on SPM and 11.2-19.6% of methadone. The highest proportion on SPM was determined for fluoxetine in the range 68.1-79.6%, norfluoxetine 46.6-61.9% and amitriptyline 21.8-51.2%. In contrast, some compounds presented very little partitioning to SPM. Less than 5% was determined partitioned to SPM over the week period for analytes including cocaine, benzoylecgonine, cocaethylene, amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine), codeine, dihydrocodeine, tramadol, nortramadol, oxazepam and ephedrine. Determined concentrations in wastewater influent were subsequently utilised in the sewage epidemiology approach to estimate drug consumption, in the community from which the wastewater was derived. This back-calculation was updated for the first time to include the concentration of analytes present on SPM. The consumption of methamphetamine and MDMA was determined to be especially high in the studied community in relation to other European countries, while cocaine and methadone consumption was relatively low. This manuscript shows that in order to apply the sewage epidemiology approach, SPM analysis is required for some compounds; whereas for others the partitioning is small and one may regard this as negligible.
Baker DR
，Očenášková V
，Kvicalova M
，Kasprzyk-Hordern B
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Spatio-temporal assessment of illicit drug use at large scale: evidence from 7 years of international wastewater monitoring.
Wastewater-based epidemiology is an additional indicator of drug use that is gaining reliability to complement the current established panel of indicators. The aims of this study were to: (i) assess spatial and temporal trends of population-normalized mass loads of benzoylecgonine, amphetamine, methamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in raw wastewater over 7 years (2011-17); (ii) address overall drug use by estimating the average number of combined doses consumed per day in each city; and (iii) compare these with existing prevalence and seizure data.
Analysis of daily raw wastewater composite samples collected over 1 week per year from 2011 to 2017.
Catchment areas of 143 wastewater treatment plants in 120 cities in 37 countries.
Parent substances (amphetamine, methamphetamine and MDMA) and the metabolites of cocaine (benzoylecgonine) and of Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol) were measured in wastewater using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Daily mass loads (mg/day) were normalized to catchment population (mg/1000 people/day) and converted to the number of combined doses consumed per day. Spatial differences were assessed world-wide, and temporal trends were discerned at European level by comparing 2011-13 drug loads versus 2014-17 loads.
Benzoylecgonine was the stimulant metabolite detected at higher loads in southern and western Europe, and amphetamine, MDMA and methamphetamine in East and North-Central Europe. In other continents, methamphetamine showed the highest levels in the United States and Australia and benzoylecgonine in South America. During the reporting period, benzoylecgonine loads increased in general across Europe, amphetamine and methamphetamine levels fluctuated and MDMA underwent an intermittent upsurge.
The analysis of wastewater to quantify drug loads provides near real-time drug use estimates that globally correspond to prevalence and seizure data.
González-Mariño I
，Baz-Lomba JA
，Alygizakis NA
，Andrés-Costa MJ
，Bade R
，Bannwarth A
，Barron LP
，Been F
，Benaglia L
，Berset JD
，Bijlsma L
，Bodík I
，Brenner A
，Brock AL
，Burgard DA
，Castrignanò E
，Celma A
，Christophoridis CE
，Covaci A
，Delémont O
，de Voogt P
，Devault DA
，Dias MJ
，Emke E
，Esseiva P
，Fatta-Kassinos D
，Fedorova G
，Fytianos K
，Gerber C
，Grabic R
，Gracia-Lor E
，Grüner S
，Gunnar T
，Hapeshi E
，Heath E
，Helm B
，Hernández F
，Kankaanpaa A
，Karolak S
，Kasprzyk-Hordern B
，Krizman-Matasic I
，Lai FY
，Lechowicz W
，Lopes A
，López de Alda M
，López-García E
，Löve ASC
，Mastroianni N
，McEneff GL
，Montes R
，Munro K
，Nefau T
，Oberacher H
，O'Brien JW
，Oertel R
，Olafsdottir K
，Picó Y
，Plósz BG
，Polesel F
，Postigo C
，Quintana JB
，Ramin P
，Reid MJ
，Rice J
，Rodil R
，Salgueiro-González N
，Schubert S
，Senta I
，Simões SM
，Sremacki MM
，Styszko K
，Terzic S
，Thomaidis NS
，Thomas KV
，Tscharke BJ
，Udrisard R
，van Nuijs ALN
，Yargeau V
，Zuccato E
，Castiglioni S
，Ort C
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Illicit drug consumption estimated using wastewater analysis and compared by settlement size in New Zealand.
Estimation of consumption of illicit drugs by wastewater-based epidemiology provides estimates of community drug-use patterns. This study describes monitoring data of three illicit drugs in New Zealand using wastewater-based epidemiology. Wastewater samples were collected at monthly intervals for larger (population ~ 50,000+) cities or in smaller towns where more data was required by authorities. In other smaller towns, samples were collected every 2 months. Samples were extracted and analysed for parent compounds and metabolites of methamphetamine, MDMA, cocaine, heroin and fentanyl consumption using solid-phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) detection. Back calculations were performed to estimate the consumption of each drug in each catchment area. Methamphetamine was the drug measured with the highest estimated mean consumption rates (724 mg/1000 people per day) in New Zealand. North Island small urban settlements had the highest estimated mean methamphetamine consumption rates (1259 mg/1000 people/day). Cocaine had the lowest estimated consumption rates (9.4 mg/1000 people/day). The highest estimated mean cocaine consumption rate was in North Island major urban settlements (24.4 mg/1000 people/day). Major urban settlements had the highest estimated mean MDMA (420 mg/1000 people/day) and cocaine consumption rates (18.8 mg/1000 people/day). South Island medium urban settlements had unexpectedly high estimated mean consumption rates of MDMA (533 mg/1000 people/day) and cocaine (17.0 mg/1000 people/day). The higher-than-expected estimated cocaine consumption was from one medium urban settlement that is also a popular tourist destination in the South Island. Heroin biomarkers were not detected at any locations, and fentanyl was detected around or below the limit of reporting. This research provides information for appropriate responses for improved social and health investment to support social services associated with illicit drug consumption.
Chappell A
，Armstrong B
，Jay E
，Phung K
，McCormick S
，Grigg S
，Waite B
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