Illicit drug consumption estimated using wastewater analysis and compared by settlement size in New Zealand.

Estimation of consumption of illicit drugs by wastewater-based epidemiology provides estimates of community drug-use patterns. This study describes monitoring data of three illicit drugs in New Zealand using wastewater-based epidemiology. Wastewater samples were collected at monthly intervals for larger (population ~ 50,000+) cities or in smaller towns where more data was required by authorities. In other smaller towns, samples were collected every 2 months. Samples were extracted and analysed for parent compounds and metabolites of methamphetamine, MDMA, cocaine, heroin and fentanyl consumption using solid-phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) detection. Back calculations were performed to estimate the consumption of each drug in each catchment area. Methamphetamine was the drug measured with the highest estimated mean consumption rates (724 mg/1000 people per day) in New Zealand. North Island small urban settlements had the highest estimated mean methamphetamine consumption rates (1259 mg/1000 people/day). Cocaine had the lowest estimated consumption rates (9.4 mg/1000 people/day). The highest estimated mean cocaine consumption rate was in North Island major urban settlements (24.4 mg/1000 people/day). Major urban settlements had the highest estimated mean MDMA (420 mg/1000 people/day) and cocaine consumption rates (18.8 mg/1000 people/day). South Island medium urban settlements had unexpectedly high estimated mean consumption rates of MDMA (533 mg/1000 people/day) and cocaine (17.0 mg/1000 people/day). The higher-than-expected estimated cocaine consumption was from one medium urban settlement that is also a popular tourist destination in the South Island. Heroin biomarkers were not detected at any locations, and fentanyl was detected around or below the limit of reporting. This research provides information for appropriate responses for improved social and health investment to support social services associated with illicit drug consumption.

Chappell A ，Armstrong B ，Jay E ，Phung K ，McCormick S ，Grigg S ，Waite B ... -  《-》

Consumption of common illicit drugs in twenty-one cities in southwest China through wastewater analysis.

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) was applied to estimate illicit drugs consumption at a provincial scale in southwest China. A large-scale wastewater sampling campaign was carried out from October to November in 2021 in 156 different wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Two 24-h composite influent wastewater samples were collected in each WWTP. Concentrations of 11 illicit drugs or their metabolites were determined using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Benzoylecgonine, cocaine, 6-monoacetylmorphine, norketamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and MDA were not detected in any of the wastewater samples. Methamphetamine and morphine were detected in >84% of samples, while ketamine was found in about 6% of the samples. The city-specific population-weighted consumption of methamphetamine and ketamine were in the range of 0.6-49.7 and N.D.-7.0 mg 1000 inh-1 day-1, respectively, with provincial population-weighted values of 22.6 and 2.4 mg 1000 inh-1 day-1 in southwest China. The city-specific load of morphine varied from 3.2 to 10.2 mg 1000 inh-1 day-1, with provincial population-weighted load of 6.7 mg 1000 inh-1 day-1. Taking into account therapeutic use of morphine and codeine, the provincial heroin consumption was estimated to be 10.3 mg 1000 inh-1 day-1, ranging from 1.7 to 18.5 mg 1000 inh-1 day-1 in 21 cities. Overall, the patterns of illicit drugs use were similar across southwest China, with high prevalence of methamphetamine and heroin, but relatively low use of ketamine. These findings could provide accurate drugs consumption information for timely identifying potential hotspots of illicit drugs use in southwest China.

Wang H ，Xu B ，Yang L ，Huo T ，Bai D ，An Q ，Li X ... -  《-》

Spatial, temporal and socioeconomic patterns of illicit drug use in New Zealand assessed using wastewater-based epidemiology timed to coincide with the census.

Price M ，Wilkins C ，Tscharke BJ ，Baker T ，Mueller JF ，Trowsdale S ... -  《-》

Spatio-temporal assessment of illicit drug use at large scale: evidence from 7 years of international wastewater monitoring.

Wastewater-based epidemiology is an additional indicator of drug use that is gaining reliability to complement the current established panel of indicators. The aims of this study were to: (i) assess spatial and temporal trends of population-normalized mass loads of benzoylecgonine, amphetamine, methamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in raw wastewater over 7 years (2011-17); (ii) address overall drug use by estimating the average number of combined doses consumed per day in each city; and (iii) compare these with existing prevalence and seizure data. Analysis of daily raw wastewater composite samples collected over 1 week per year from 2011 to 2017. Catchment areas of 143 wastewater treatment plants in 120 cities in 37 countries. Parent substances (amphetamine, methamphetamine and MDMA) and the metabolites of cocaine (benzoylecgonine) and of Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9 -tetrahydrocannabinol) were measured in wastewater using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Daily mass loads (mg/day) were normalized to catchment population (mg/1000 people/day) and converted to the number of combined doses consumed per day. Spatial differences were assessed world-wide, and temporal trends were discerned at European level by comparing 2011-13 drug loads versus 2014-17 loads. Benzoylecgonine was the stimulant metabolite detected at higher loads in southern and western Europe, and amphetamine, MDMA and methamphetamine in East and North-Central Europe. In other continents, methamphetamine showed the highest levels in the United States and Australia and benzoylecgonine in South America. During the reporting period, benzoylecgonine loads increased in general across Europe, amphetamine and methamphetamine levels fluctuated and MDMA underwent an intermittent upsurge. The analysis of wastewater to quantify drug loads provides near real-time drug use estimates that globally correspond to prevalence and seizure data.

González-Mariño I ，Baz-Lomba JA ，Alygizakis NA ，Andrés-Costa MJ ，Bade R ，Bannwarth A ，Barron LP ，Been F ，Benaglia L ，Berset JD ，Bijlsma L ，Bodík I ，Brenner A ，Brock AL ，Burgard DA ，Castrignanò E ，Celma A ，Christophoridis CE ，Covaci A ，Delémont O ，de Voogt P ，Devault DA ，Dias MJ ，Emke E ，Esseiva P ，Fatta-Kassinos D ，Fedorova G ，Fytianos K ，Gerber C ，Grabic R ，Gracia-Lor E ，Grüner S ，Gunnar T ，Hapeshi E ，Heath E ，Helm B ，Hernández F ，Kankaanpaa A ，Karolak S ，Kasprzyk-Hordern B ，Krizman-Matasic I ，Lai FY ，Lechowicz W ，Lopes A ，López de Alda M ，López-García E ，Löve ASC ，Mastroianni N ，McEneff GL ，Montes R ，Munro K ，Nefau T ，Oberacher H ，O'Brien JW ，Oertel R ，Olafsdottir K ，Picó Y ，Plósz BG ，Polesel F ，Postigo C ，Quintana JB ，Ramin P ，Reid MJ ，Rice J ，Rodil R ，Salgueiro-González N ，Schubert S ，Senta I ，Simões SM ，Sremacki MM ，Styszko K ，Terzic S ，Thomaidis NS ，Thomas KV ，Tscharke BJ ，Udrisard R ，van Nuijs ALN ，Yargeau V ，Zuccato E ，Castiglioni S ，Ort C ... -  《-》

Cocaine, MDMA and methamphetamine residues in wastewater: Consumption trends (2009-2015) in South East Queensland, Australia.

Wastewater analysis, or wastewater-based epidemiology, has become a common tool to monitor trends of illicit drug consumption around the world. In this study, we examined trends in cocaine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and methamphetamine consumption by measuring their residues in wastewater from two wastewater treatment plants in Australia (specifically, an urban and a rural catchment, both in South East Queensland) between 2009 and 2015. With direct injection of the samples, target analytes were identified and quantified using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Cocaine and MDMA residues and metabolites were mainly quantifiable in the urban catchment while methamphetamine residues were consistently detected in both urban and rural catchments. There was no consistent trend in the population normalised mass loads observed for cocaine and MDMA at the urban site between 2009 and 2015. In contrast, there was a five-fold increase in methamphetamine consumption over this period in this catchment. For methamphetamine consumption, the rural area showed a very similar trend as the urban catchment starting at a lower baseline. The observed increase in per capita loads of methamphetamine via wastewater analysis over the past six years in South East Queensland provides objective evidence for increased methamphetamine consumption in the Australian population while the use of other illicit stimulants remained relatively stable.

Lai FY ，O'Brien JW ，Thai PK ，Hall W ，Chan G ，Bruno R ，Ort C ，Prichard J ，Carter S ，Anuj S ，Kirkbride KP ，Gartner C ，Humphries M ，Mueller JF ... -  《-》