Organophosphate and brominated flame retardants in Australian indoor environments: Levels, sources, and preliminary assessment of human exposure.

Concentrations of nine organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) and eight polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were measured in samples of indoor dust (n = 85) and air (n = 45) from Australian houses, offices, hotels, and transportation (buses, trains, and aircraft). All target compounds were detected in indoor dust and air samples. Median ∑9OPFRs concentrations were 40 μg/g in dust and 44 ng/m3 in indoor air, while median ∑8PBDEs concentrations were 2.1 μg/g and 0.049 ng/m3. Concentrations of FRs were higher in rooms that contained carpet, air conditioners, and various electronic items. Estimated daily intakes in adults are 14000 pg/kg body weight/day and 330 pg/kg body weight/day for ∑9OPFRs and ∑8PBDEs, respectively. Our results suggest that for the volatile FRs such as tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) and TCIPP, inhalation is expected to be the more important intake pathway compared to dust ingestion and dermal contact.

He C ，Wang X ，Thai P ，Baduel C ，Gallen C ，Banks A ，Bainton P ，English K ，Mueller JF ... -  《-》

A review on organophosphate flame retardants in indoor dust from China: Implications for human exposure.

To investigate the status of organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) in indoor dust in China, published scientific studies were systematically collected and analyzed. The analysis revealed large variations among microenvironments, including offices (median: 14.59 μg/g) and e-waste workshops (median: 13.36 μg/g), with high levels of OPFRs contamination. Chlorinated organophosphate ester flame retardants (Cl-OPFRs) were the dominant OPFRs (52-75%) in most indoor dust samples; however, in e-waste workshops, aryl- and alkyl-OPFRs were the most abundant. As an alternative flame retardant to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), OPFRs concentrations have increased in recent years in indoor environments in China. Urban sources are of greatest concern: Shanghai (mean: 13.54 μg/g), Guangzhou (mean: 10.76 μg/g), and Beijing (mean: 9.37 μg/g) have high ΣOPFRs contamination levels in indoor dust. Compared to other countries, the OPFRs concentrations in indoor dust in all studied microenvironments from China (median: 8.81 μg/g) were low. The estimated daily intakes of ΣOPFRs by dust ingestion for adults and children were 2.12 and 11.06 ng/kg/body weight/day (average), respectively. Human exposure to OPFRs through the accidental intake of indoor dust does not pose a direct health risk to the Chinese population. However, indoor dust ingestion is an important route for human exposure to OPFRs.

Chen Y ，Liu Q ，Ma J ，Yang S ，Wu Y ，An Y ... -  《-》

Exposure to brominated and organophosphate ester flame retardants in U.S. childcare environments: Effect of removal of flame-retarded nap mats on indoor levels.

We assessed exposure to 39 brominated and 16 organophosphate ester flame retardants (FRs) from both dust and indoor air at seven childcare centres in Seattle, USA, and investigated the importance of nap mats as a source of these chemicals. Many childcare centres serving young children use polyurethane foam mats for the children's naptime. Until recently, the vast majority of these mats sold in the United States contained flame-retarded polyurethane foam to meet California Technical Bulletin 117 (TB117) requirements. With the 2013 update of TB117, allowing manufacturers to meet flammability standards without adding FRs to filling materials, FR-free nap mats have become widely available. We conducted an intervention study by actively switching out FR-treated nap mats with FR-free nap mats and measuring FR levels in indoor air and dust before and after the switch-out. The predominant FRs found in dust and indoor air were 2-ethylhexyl tetrabromobenzoate (EHTBB) and tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCIPP), respectively. Nap mat samples analysed from four of the six centres contained a Firemaster® mixture, while one mat was predominantly treated with tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) and the other contained no detectable target FRs. After replacement, there was a significant decrease (p = 0.03-0.09) in median dust concentrations for bis(2-ethylhexyl) tetrabromophthalate (BEHTBP), EHTBB, tris(4-butylphenyl) phosphate (TBPP), and TDCIPP with reductions of 90%, 79%, 65%, and 42%, respectively. These findings suggest that the nap mats were an important source of these FRs to dust in the investigated childcare environments and that a campaign of swapping out flame-retarded mats for FR-free ones would reduce exposure to these chemicals. While calculated exposure estimates to the investigated FRs via inhalation, dust ingestion, and dermal absorption were below established reference dose values, they are likely underestimated when considering the toddlers' direct contact to the mats and personal cloud effects.

Stubbings WA ，Schreder ED ，Thomas MB ，Romanak K ，Venier M ，Salamova A ... -  《-》

Brominated and organophosphorus flame retardants in South African indoor dust and cat hair.

Flame retardants (FRs), such as brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs), are diverse groups of compounds used in various products related to the indoor environment. In this study concentrations of eight polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), two alternative BFRs and ten OPFRs were determined in indoor dust (n = 20) and pet cat hair (n = 11) from South Africa. The OPFRs were the major FRs, contributing to more than 97% of the total FR concentration. The median Ʃ10OPFRs concentrations were 44,800 ng/g in freshly collected dust (F-dust), 19,800 ng/g in the dust collected from vacuum cleaner bags (V-dust), and 865 ng/g in cat hair (C-hair). Tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCIPP) was the dominant OPFR in the dust samples with median concentrations of 7,010 ng/g in F-dust and 3,590 ng/g in V-dust. Tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP) was the dominant OPFR in C-hair, with a median concentration of 387 ng/g. The concentrations of Ʃ8PBDEs were higher in F-dust than in V-dust. BDE209 was the dominant BFR in all three matrices. Bis(2-ethylhexyl)-3,4,5,6-tetrabromo-phthalate (BEH-TEBP) and 2-ethylhexyl-2,3,4,5- tetrabromobenzoate (EH-TBB) showed notable contributions to the BFR profile in cat hair. A worst-case dust exposure estimation was performed for all analytes. The estimated TCIPP daily intake through dust ingestion was up to 1,240 ng/kg bw for toddlers. The results indicate that OPFRs are ubiquitous in South African indoor environment. Indoor dust is a major source of human exposure to environmental contaminants. This can for example occur through hand-to-mouth contact of toddlers, and is an important route of exposure to currently used FRs accumulated on dust particles. The presence of FRs, in particular high concentrations of OPFRs, suggests that children and indoor pet cats may have greater exposure to FRs than adults.

Brits M ，Brandsma SH ，Rohwer ER ，De Vos J ，Weiss JM ，de Boer J ... -  《-》

Concentrations and variability of organophosphate esters, halogenated flame retardants, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in indoor and outdoor air in Stockholm, Sweden.

We investigated the concentrations and temporal variability of organophospate esters (OPEs), halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in indoor and outdoor urban air in Stockholm, Sweden over one year (2014-2015) period. The median concentrations of the three target chemical groups (OPEs, HFRs, PBDEs) were 1-2 orders of magnitude higher in indoor air than outdoor urban air. OPEs were the most abundant target FRs with median concentrations in indoor (Σ10OPE = 340 000 pg/m3) and outdoor urban (Σ10OPEs = 3100 pg/m3) air, being 3 orders of magnitude greater than for HFRs in indoor (Σ15HFRs = 120 pg/m3) and outdoor urban (Σ15HFRs = 1.6 pg/m3) air. In indoor air, PBDE concentrations (Σ17PBDEs = 33 pg/m3) were lower than for the HFRs, but in outdoor urban air, concentrations (Σ17PBDEs = 1.1 pg/m3) were similar to HFRs. The most abundant OPEs in both the indoor and outdoor urban air were tris(2-butoxyethyl)phosphate (TBOEP), tris(chloroisopropyl)phosphate (TCIPP), tris(2-chloroethyl)phosphate (TCEP), tri-n-butyl-phosphate (TnBP), triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) and tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl)phosphate (TDCIPP). TCIPP in indoor air was found in the highest concentrations and showed the greatest temporal variability, which ranged from 85 000 to 1 900 000 pg/m3 during the one-year sampling period. We speculate that activities in the building, e.g. floor cleaning, polishing, construction, introduction of new electronics and changes in ventilation rate could explain its variation. Some OPEs (TnBP, TCEP, TCIPP, TDCIPP and TPhP), HFRs/PBDEs (pentabromotoluene, 2, 3-dibromopropyl 2, 4, 6-tribromophenyl ether, hexabromobenzene, BDE-28, -47, and -99) in outdoor urban air showed seasonality, with increased concentrations during the warm period (p < 0.05, Pearson's r ranged from -0.45 to -0.91). The observed seasonality for OPEs was probably due to changes in primary emission, and those for the HFRs and PBDEs was likely due to re-volatilization from contaminated surfaces.

Wong F ，de Wit CA ，Newton SR 《-》