Symposium review: Effect of post-pasteurization contamination on fluid milk quality.

Fluid milk quality in the United States has improved steadily over the last 2 decades, in large part due to the reduction in post-pasteurization contamination (PPC). Despite these improvements, some studies suggest that almost 50% of fluid milk still shows evidence of PPC with organisms that are able to grow at 6°C, even though PPC may be much less frequent in some facilities. Several gram-negative bacteria, when introduced as PPC, can grow rapidly at refrigeration temperatures around 6°C and can lead to bacterial levels above 20,000 cfu/mL (the regulatory limit for bacterial numbers in fluid milk in the United States) and spoilage that can be detected sensorially within 7 to 10 d of processing. Importantly, however, storage temperature can have a considerable effect on microbial growth, and fluid milk stored at 4°C and below may show considerably delayed onset of microbial growth and spoilage compared with samples stored at what may be considered mild abuse (6°C and above). Notable organisms that cause PPC and grow at refrigeration temperatures include psychrotolerant Enterobacteriaceae and coliforms, as well as Pseudomonas. These organisms are known to produce a variety of enzymes that lead to flavor, odor, and body defects that can ultimately affect consumer perception and willingness to buy. Detecting PPC in high temperature, short time, freshly pasteurized fluid milk can be challenging because PPC often occurs sporadically and at low levels. Additionally, indicator organisms typically used in fluid milk (i.e., coliforms) have been shown to represent only a fraction of the total PPC. Recent studies indicate that coliforms account for less than 20% of the total gram-negative organisms introduced into fluid milk after pasteurization. In contrast, Pseudomonas, which is not a coliform and therefore is not detected using coliform media, is the most commonly isolated genus in PPC fluid milk. To reduce PPC, processors must (1) use testing methods that can detect both coliforms and non-coliform gram-negatives (i.e., Pseudomonas) to understand true contamination rates and patterns, and (2) establish cleaning and sanitation protocols and employee and management behaviors that target persistent and transient PPC organisms.

Martin NH ，Boor KJ ，Wiedmann M 《-》

Rapid detection and characterization of postpasteurization contaminants in pasteurized fluid milk.

Microbial spoilage of pasteurized fluid milk is typically due to either (1) postpasteurization contamination (PPC) with psychrotolerant gram-negative bacteria (predominantly Pseudomonas) or (2) growth of psychrotolerant sporeformers (e.g., Paenibacillus) that have the ability to survive pasteurization when present as spores in raw milk, and to subsequently grow at refrigeration temperatures. While fluid milk quality has improved over the last several decades, continued reduction of PPC is hampered by the lack of rapid, sensitive, and specific methods that allow for detection of PPC in fluid milk, with fluid milk processors still often using time-consuming methods (e.g., Moseley keeping quality test). The goal of this project was to utilize a set of commercial fluid milk samples that are characterized by a mixture of samples with PPC due to psychrotolerant gram-negative bacteria and samples with presence and growth of psychrotolerant sporeforming bacteria to evaluate different approaches for rapid detection of PPC. Comprehensive microbiological shelf-life characterization of 105 pasteurized fluid milk samples obtained from 20 dairy processing plants showed that 60/105 samples reached bacterial counts >20,000 cfu/mL over the shelf-life due to PPC with gram-negative bacteria. Among these 60 samples with evidence of gram-negative PPC spoilage over the shelf-life, 100% (60/60) showed evidence of contamination with noncoliform, non-Enterobacteriaceae (EB) gram-negative bacteria (e.g., Pseudomonas), 20% (12/60) showed evidence of contamination with coliforms, and 7% (4/60) showed evidence of contamination with noncoliform EB. Among the remaining 45 samples, 28 showed levels of gram-positive bacteria above 20,000 cfu/mL and the remaining 17 samples did not exceed 20,000 cfu/mL over the shelf-life. Evaluation of the same set of 105 samples using 6 different approaches {all possible combinations of 2 different enrichment protocols (13°C or 21°C for 18 h) and 3 different plating media [crystal violet tetrazolium agar, EB Petrifilm (3M, St. Paul, MN), and Coliform Petrifilm]} showed that enrichment at 21°C for 18 h, followed by plating on crystal violet tetrazolium agar provided for the most sensitive, accelerated detection of samples that reached >20,000 cfu/mL due to PPC with psychrotolerant gram-negatives (70% sensitivity). These results show that tests still required and traditionally used in the dairy industry (e.g., coliform testing) are not suitable for monitoring for PPC. Rather, approaches that allow for detection of all gram-negative bacteria are essential for improved detection of PPC in fluid milk.

Alles AA ，Wiedmann M ，Martin NH 《-》

Interventions designed to control postpasteurization contamination in high-temperature, short-time-pasteurized fluid milk processing facilities: A case study on the effect of employee training, clean-in-place chemical modification, and preventive maintena

Postpasteurization contamination (PPC) with gram-negative bacteria adversely affects the quality and shelf-life of milk through the development of flavor, odor, texture, and visual defects. Through evaluation of milk quality at 4 large fluid milk processing facilities in the northeast United States, we examined the efficacy of 3 strategies designed to reduce the occurrence of PPC in fluid milk: (1) employee training (focusing on good manufacturing practices) alone and (2) with concurrent implementation of modified clean-in-place chemistry and (3) preventive maintenance (PM) focused on replacement of wearable rubber components. Despite increases in employee knowledge and self-reported behavior change, microbiological evaluation of fluid milk before and after interventions indicated that neither training alone nor training combined with modified clean-in-place interventions significantly decreased PPC. Furthermore, characterization of gram-negative bacterial isolates from milk suggested that specific bacterial taxonomic groups (notably, Pseudomonas sequence types) continued to contribute to PPC even after interventions and that no major changes in the composition of the spoilage-associated microbial populations occurred as a consequence of the interventions. More specifically, in 3 of 4 facilities, gram-negative bacteria with identical 16S rDNA sequence types were isolated on multiple occasions. Evaluation of a PM intervention showed that used rubber goods harbored PPC-associated bacteria and that PPC may have been less frequent following a PM intervention in which wearable rubber goods were replaced (reduction from 3/3 samples with PPC before to 1/3 samples after). Overall, our findings suggest that commonly used "broad stroke interventions" may have a limited effect on reducing PPC. Our case study also demonstrates the inherent complexities of identifying and successfully addressing sanitation problems in large and complex fluid milk processing facilities. For example, broad changes to sanitation practices without improvements in PM and sanitary equipment design may not always lead to reduced PPC. Our data also indicate that although short-term evaluations, such as pre- and post-tests for employee training, may suggest improvements after corrective and preventive actions, extensive microbial testing, ideally in combination with isolate characterization, may be necessary to evaluate return on investment of different interventions.

Reichler SJ ，Murphy SI ，Erickson AW ，Martin NH ，Snyder AB ，Wiedmann M ... -  《-》

Pseudomonas fluorescens group bacterial strains are responsible for repeat and sporadic postpasteurization contamination and reduced fluid milk shelf life.

Postpasteurization contamination (PPC) of high temperature, short time-pasteurized fluid milk by gram-negative (GN) bacteria continues to be an issue for processors. To improve PPC control, a better understanding of PPC patterns in dairy processing facilities over time and across equipment is needed. We thus collected samples from 10 fluid milk processing facilities to (1) detect and characterize PPC patterns over time, (2) determine the efficacy of different media to detect PPC, and (3) characterize sensory defects associated with PPC. Specifically, we collected 280 samples of high temperature, short time-pasteurized milk representing different products (2%, skim, and chocolate) and different fillers over 4 samplings performed over 11 mo at each of the 10 facilities. Standard plate count (SPC) as well as total GN, coliform, and Enterobacteriaceae (EB) counts were performed upon receipt and after 7, 10, 14, 17, and 21 d of storage at 6°C. We used 16S rDNA sequencing to characterize representative bacterial isolates from (1) test days with SPC >20,000 cfu/mL and (2) all samples with presumptive GN, coliforms, or EB. Day-21 samples were also evaluated by a trained defect judging panel. By d 21, 226 samples had SPC >20,000 cfu/mL on at least 1 d of shelf life; GN bacteria were found in 132 of these 226 samples, indicating PPC. Crystal violet tetrazolium agar detected PPC with the greatest sensitivity. Spoilage due to PPC was predominantly associated with Pseudomonas (isolated from 101 of the 132 samples with PPC); coliforms and EB were found in 27 and 37 samples with spoilage due to PPC, respectively. Detection of Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter was associated with lower flavor scores; coagulated, fruity fermented, and unclean defects were more prevalent in d-21 samples with PPC. Repeat isolation of Pseudomonas fluorescens group strains with identical partial 16S rDNA sequence types was observed in 8 facilities. In several facilities, specific lines, products, or processing days were linked to repeat product contamination with Pseudomonas with identical sequence types. Our data show that PPC due to Pseudomonas remains a major challenge for fluid milk processors; the inability of coliform and EB tests to detect Pseudomonas may contribute to this. Our data also provide important initial insights into PPC patterns (e.g., line-specific contamination), supporting the importance of molecular subtyping methods for identification of PPC sources.

Reichler SJ ，Trmčić A ，Martin NH ，Boor KJ ，Wiedmann M ... -  《-》

Development of a Monte Carlo simulation model to predict pasteurized fluid milk spoilage due to post-pasteurization contamination with gram-negative bacteria.

Psychrotolerant gram-negative bacteria introduced as post-pasteurization contamination (PPC) are a major cause of spoilage and reduced shelf life of high-temperature, short-time pasteurized fluid milk. To provide improved tools to (1) predict pasteurized fluid milk shelf life as influenced by PPC and (2) assess the effectiveness of different potential interventions that could reduce spoilage due to PPC, we developed a Monte Carlo simulation model that predicts fluid milk spoilage due to psychrotolerant gram-negative bacteria introduced as PPC. As a first step, 17 gram-negative bacterial isolates frequently associated with fluid milk spoilage were selected and used to generate growth data in skim milk broth at 6°C. The resulting growth parameters, frequency of isolation for the 17 different isolates, and initial concentration of bacteria in milk with PPC, were used to develop a Monte Carlo model to predict bacterial number at different days of shelf life based on storage temperature of milk. This model was then validated with data from d 7 and 10 of shelf life, collected from commercial operations. The validated model predicted that the parameters (1) maximum growth rate and (2) storage temperature had the greatest influence on the percentage of containers exceeding 20,000 cfu/mL standard plate count on d 7 and 10 (i.e., spoiling due to PPC), which indicates that accurate data on maximum growth rate and storage temperature are important for accurate predictions. In addition to allowing for prediction of fluid milk shelf life, the model allows for simulation of "what-if" scenarios, which allowed us to predict the effectiveness of different interventions to reduce overall fluid milk spoilage due to PPC through a set of proof-of-concept scenario (e.g., frequency of PPC in containers reduced from 100% to 10%; limiting distribution temperature to a maximum of 6°C). Combined with other models, such as previous models on fluid milk spoilage due to psychrotolerant spore-forming bacteria, the data and tools developed here will allow for rational, digitally enabled, fluid milk shelf life prediction and quality enhancement.

Lau S ，Trmcic A ，Martin NH ，Wiedmann M ，Murphy SI ... -  《-》