Cool Bands: Wing bands decrease rate of heating, but not equilibrium temperature in Anartia fatima.

Butterflies regulate their internal thoracic temperature in order to optimize performance activities (e.g. flight, foraging). Previous research has shown that butterfly wings, particularly the innermost portions, play a role in thermoregulation. We investigated to see whether a lightly colored wing band would alter the thermal properties of the banded peacock butterfly (Anartia fatima) with two within subject experiments in a laboratory setting: (1) band color manipulation in which euthanized individuals were heated to thermal equilibrium with the band unaltered and then again with the wing darkened; (2) wing ablation in which individuals already run through experiment 1 were heated to equilibrium two more times; once with the outer portion of the wing including the band removed and then with the entire wing removed. Individuals were spread so that the dorsal surface of the wing was exposed to illumination from a lamp suspended above. Twelve Anartia fatima males were collected in Panama and were run through experiment one. Four individuals were run through experiment two. We found no effect of darkening the band on the internal thoracic equilibrium temperature, but the darkened band did increase the rate of heating. The wing ablation experiment revealed that wing removal lowered the internal thoracic equilibrium temperature but did not affect the heating rate. Therefore we show that butterfly bands may be important in butterfly thermoregulation and we discuss the importance of the wing band on thermoregulatory abilities in Anartia fatima with respect to the butterfly's natural history. We conclude that the wing band may allow butterflies to reduce heat stress induced by their warm environments.

Brashears J ，Aiello A ，Seymoure BM 《JOURNAL OF THERMAL BIOLOGY》

Keeping the band together: evidence for false boundary disruptive coloration in a butterfly.

There is a recent surge of evidence supporting disruptive coloration, in which patterns break up the animal's outline through false edges or boundaries, increasing survival in animals by reducing predator detection and/or preventing recognition. Although research has demonstrated that false edges are successful for reducing predation of prey, research into the role of internal false boundaries (i.e. stripes and bands) in reducing predation remains warranted. Many animals have stripes and bands that may function disruptively. Here, we test the possible disruptive function of wing band patterning in a butterfly, Anartia fatima, using artificial paper and plasticine models in Panama. We manipulated the band so that one model type had the band shifted to the wing margin (nondisruptive treatment) and another model had a discontinuous band located on the wing margin (discontinuous edge treatment). We kept the natural wing pattern to represent the false boundary treatment. Across all treatment groups, we standardized the area of colour and used avian visual models to confirm a match between manipulated and natural wing colours. False boundary models had higher survival than either the discontinuous edge model or the nondisruptive model. There was no survival difference between the discontinuous edge model and the nondisruptive model. Our results demonstrate the importance of wing bands in reducing predation on butterflies and show that markings set in from the wing margin can reduce predation more effectively than marginal bands and discontinuous marginal patterns. This study demonstrates an adaptive benefit of having stripes and bands.

Seymoure BM ，Aiello A 《-》

Why Small Is Beautiful: Wing Colour Is Free from Thermoregulatory Constraint in the Small Lycaenid Butterfly, Polyommatus icarus.

We examined the roles of wing melanisation, weight, and basking posture in thermoregulation in Polyommatus Icarus, a phenotypically variable and protandrous member of the diverse Polyommatinae (Lycaenidae). Under controlled experimental conditions, approximating to marginal environmental conditions for activity in the field (= infrequent flight, long duration basking periods), warming rates are maximised with fully open wings and maximum body temperatures are dependent on weight. Variation in wing melanisation within and between sexes has no effect on warming rates; males and females which differ in melanisation had similar warming rates. Posture also affected cooling rates, consistent with cooling being dependent on convective heat loss. We hypothesise that for this small sized butterfly, melanisation has little or no effect on thermoregulation. This may be a factor contributing to the diversity of wing colours in the Polyommatinae. Because of the importance of size for thermoregulation in this small butterfly, requirements for attaining a suitable size to confer thermal stability in adults may also be a factor influencing larval feeding rates, development time and patterns of voltinism. Our findings indicate that commonly accepted views of the importance of melanisation, posture and size to thermoregulation, developed using medium and large sized butterflies, are not necessarily applicable to small sized butterflies.

De Keyser R ，Breuker CJ ，Hails RS ，Dennis RL ，Shreeve TG ... -  《PLoS One》

Infrared camera on a butterfly's wing.

Thermal cameras were constructed long ago, but working principles and complex technologies still limit their resolution, total number of pixels, and sensitivity. We address the problem of finding a new sensing mechanism surpassing existing limits of thermal radiation detection. Here we reveal the new mechanism on the butterfly wing, whose wing-scales act as pixels of an imaging array on a thermal detector. We observed that the tiniest features of a Morpho butterfly wing-scale match the mean free path of air molecules at atmospheric pressure - a condition when the radiation-induced heating produces an additional, thermophoretic force that deforms the wing-scales. The resulting deformation field was imaged holographically with mK temperature sensitivity and 200 Hz response speed. By imitating butterfly wing-scales, the effect can be further amplified through a suitable choice of material, working pressure, sensor design, and detection method. The technique is universally applicable to any nano-patterned, micro-scale system in other spectral ranges, such as UV and terahertz.

Grujić D ，Vasiljević D ，Pantelić D ，Tomić L ，Stamenković Z ，Jelenković B ... -  《OPTICS EXPRESS》

The marginal band system in nymphalid butterfly wings.

Butterfly wing color patterns are highly complex and diverse, but they are believed to be derived from the nymphalid groundplan, which is composed of several color pattern systems. Among these pattern systems, the marginal band system, including marginal and submarginal bands, has rarely been studied. Here, we examined the color pattern diversity of the marginal band system among nymphalid butterflies. Marginal and submarginal bands are usually expressed as a pair of linear bands aligned with the wing margin. However, a submarginal band can be expressed as a broken band, an elongated oval, or a single dot. The marginal focus, usually a white dot at the middle of a wing compartment along the wing edge, corresponds to the pupal edge spot, one of the pupal cuticle spots that signify the locations of color pattern organizing centers. A marginal band can be expressed as a semicircle, an elongated oval, or a pair of eyespot-like structures, which suggest the organizing activity of the marginal focus. Physical damage at the pupal edge spot leads to distal dislocation of the submarginal band in Junonia almana and in Vanessa indica, suggesting that the marginal focus functions as an organizing center for the marginal band system. Taken together, we conclude that the marginal band system is developmentally equivalent to other symmetry systems. Additionally, the marginal band is likely a core element and the submarginal band a paracore element of the marginal band system, and both bands are primarily specified by the marginal focus organizing center.

Taira W ，Kinjo S ，Otaki JM 《ZOOLOGICAL SCIENCE》