Why make it if you can take it: review on extracellular cholesterol uptake and its importance in breast and ovarian cancers.

Cholesterol homeostasis is essential for healthy mammalian cells and dysregulation of cholesterol metabolism contributes to the pathogenesis of various diseases including cancer. Cancer cells are dependent on cholesterol. Malignant progression is associated with high cellular demand for cholesterol, and extracellular cholesterol uptake is often elevated in cancer cell to meet its metabolic needs. Tumors take up cholesterol from the blood stream through their vasculature. Breast cancer grows in, and ovarian cancer metastasizes into fatty tissue that provides them with an additional source of cholesterol. High levels of extracellular cholesterol are beneficial for tumors whose cancer cells master the uptake of extracellular cholesterol. In this review we concentrate on cholesterol uptake mechanisms, receptor-mediated endocytosis and macropinocytosis, and how these are utilized and manipulated by cancer cells to overcome their possible intrinsic or pharmacological limitations in cholesterol synthesis. We focus especially on the involvement of lysosomes in cholesterol uptake. Identifying the vulnerabilities of cholesterol metabolism and manipulating them could provide novel efficient therapeutic strategies for treatment of cancers that manifest dependency for extracellular cholesterol.

Lauridsen AR ，Skorda A ，Winther NI ，Bay ML ，Kallunki T ... -  《JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL & CLINICAL CANCER RESEARCH》

Cholesterol Homeostasis Modulates Platinum Sensitivity in Human Ovarian Cancer.

Criscuolo D ，Avolio R ，Calice G ，Laezza C ，Paladino S ，Navarra G ，Maddalena F ，Crispo F ，Pagano C ，Bifulco M ，Landriscina M ，Matassa DS ，Esposito F ... -  《Cells》

Activation of invasion by oncogenic reprogramming of cholesterol metabolism via increased NPC1 expression and macropinocytosis.

Cancer cells are dependent on cholesterol, and they possess strictly controlled cholesterol homeostasis mechanisms. These allow them to smoothly switch between cholesterol synthesis and uptake to fulfill their needs and to adapt environmental changes. Here we describe a mechanism of how cancer cells employ oncogenic growth factor signaling to promote uptake and utilization of extracellular cholesterol via Myeloid Zinc Finger 1 (MZF1)-mediated Niemann Pick C1 (NPC1) expression and upregulated macropinocytosis. Expression of p95ErbB2, highly oncogenic, standard-treatment resistant form of ErbB2 mobilizes lysosomes and activates EGFR, invasion and macropinocytosis. This is connected to a metabolic shift from cholesterol synthesis to uptake due to macropinocytosis-enabled flow of extracellular cholesterol. NPC1 increase facilitates extracellular cholesterol uptake and is necessary for the invasion of ErbB2 expressing breast cancer spheroids and ovarian cancer organoids, indicating a regulatory role for NPC1 in the process. The ability to obtain cholesterol as a byproduct of increased macropinocytosis allows cancer cells to direct the resources needed for the energy-consuming cholesterol synthesis towards other activities such as invasion. These results demonstrate that macropinocytosis is not only an alternative energy source for cancer cells but also an efficient way to provide building material, such as cholesterol, for its macromolecules and membranes.

Skorda A ，Lauridsen AR ，Wu C ，Huang J ，Mrackova M ，Winther NI ，Jank V ，Sztupinszki Z ，Strauss R ，Bilgin M ，Maeda K ，Liu B ，Luo Y ，Jäättelä M ，Kallunki T ... -  《-》

The cholesterol metabolite 25-hydroxycholesterol activates estrogen receptor α-mediated signaling in cancer cells and in cardiomyocytes.

Lappano R ，Recchia AG ，De Francesco EM ，Angelone T ，Cerra MC ，Picard D ，Maggiolini M ... -  《PLoS One》

Macropinocytosis activated by oncogenic Dbl enables specific targeted delivery of Tat/pDNA nano-complexes into ovarian cancer cells.

Niu X ，Gao Z ，Qi S ，Su L ，Yang N ，Luan X ，Li J ，Zhang Q ，An Y ，Zhang S ... -  《International Journal of Nanomedicine》