How does the citizens' choice of water use actions based on their empirical knowledge affect the water quality in a rural community of the Philippines?

This research assessed water quality, based on the purpose of water consumption, in households in the municipality of Barbaza, the Province of Antique, Philippines, according to the national water quality guidelines. The effects of the empirical/traditional water use actions taken by local people on the quality of the water they use were investigated through a descriptive study using water quality measurements. Most of the drinking water in the community did not meet the required standards of pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), or coliform. Tap water and well water samples generally met the pH and TDS standards. However, Escherichia coli (E. coli) and coliform were detected, and nitrogen pollution in well water was also confirmed. Local practices, such as using old clothes as filters for well pumps, increased the coliform concentration from 0-10 CFU/mL to too numerous to count (TNTC) levels of more than 100 CFU/mL. Storing well water in a bucket also affected both E. coli and coliform concentrations. Such empirical/traditional water use actions create a high risk of exposing local people to harmful microorganisms. This research integrated citizen science into the methodology for local water management, which could assist governors, practitioners, and citizens, particularly in Southeast Asia, where strong community relationships exist.

Yazawa T ，Rubite KJG ，Macabata-Rubite PE 《JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH》

Bacteriological quality of bottled drinking water versus municipal tap water in Dharan municipality, Nepal.

Pant ND ，Poudyal N ，Bhattacharya SK 《-》

Water quality assessment and evaluation of human health risk of drinking water from source to point of use at Thulamela municipality, Limpopo Province.

Water quality has been linked to health outcomes across the world. This study evaluated the physico-chemical and bacteriological quality of drinking water supplied by the municipality from source to the point of use at Thulamela municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa; assessed the community practices regarding collection and storage of water and determined the human health risks associated with consumption of the water. Assessment of water quality was carried out on 114 samples. Questionnaires were used to determine the community's practices of water transportation from source to the point-of-use and storage activities. Many of the households reported constant water supply interruptions and the majority (92.2%) do not treat their water before use. While E. coli and total coliform were not detected in the water samples at source (dam), most of the samples from the street taps and at the point of use (household storage containers) were found to be contaminated with high levels of E. coli and total coliform. The levels of E. coli and total coliform detected during the wet season were higher than the levels detected during the dry season. Trace metals' levels in the drinking water samples were within permissible range of both the South African National Standards and World Health Organisation. The calculated non-carcinogenic effects using hazard quotient toxicity potential and cumulative hazard index of drinking water through ingestion and dermal pathways were less than unity, implying that consumption of the water could pose no significant non-carcinogenic health risk. Intermittent interruption in municipal water supply and certain water transportation and storage practices by community members increase the risk of water contamination. We recommend a more consistent supply of treated municipal water in Limpopo province and training of residents on hygienic practices of transportation and storage of drinking water from the source to the point of use.

Luvhimbi N ，Tshitangano TG ，Mabunda JT ，Olaniyi FC ，Edokpayi JN ... -  《Scientific Reports》

Comparing microbial water quality in an intermittent and continuous piped water supply.

Supplying piped water intermittently is a common practice throughout the world that increases the risk of microbial contamination through multiple mechanisms. Converting an intermittent supply to a continuous supply has the potential to improve the quality of water delivered to consumers. To understand the effects of this upgrade on water quality, we tested samples from reservoirs, consumer taps, and drinking water provided by households (e.g. from storage containers) from an intermittent and continuous supply in Hubli-Dharwad, India, over one year. Water samples were tested for total coliform, Escherichia coli, turbidity, free chlorine, and combined chlorine. While water quality was similar at service reservoirs supplying the continuous and intermittent sections of the network, indicator bacteria were detected more frequently and at higher concentrations in samples from taps supplied intermittently compared to those supplied continuously (p < 0.01). Detection of E. coli was rare in continuous supply, with 0.7% of tap samples positive compared to 31.7% of intermittent water supply tap samples positive for E. coli. In samples from both continuously and intermittently supplied taps, higher concentrations of total coliform were measured after rainfall events. While source water quality declined slightly during the rainy season, only tap water from intermittent supply had significantly more indicator bacteria throughout the rainy season compared to the dry season. Drinking water samples provided by households in both continuous and intermittent supplies had higher concentrations of indicator bacteria than samples collected directly from taps. Most households with continuous supply continued to store water for drinking, resulting in re-contamination, which may reduce the benefits to water quality of converting to continuous supply.

Kumpel E ，Nelson KL 《-》

Water quality risks of 'improved' water sources: evidence from Cambodia.

The objective of this study was to investigate the quality of on-plot piped water and rainwater at the point of consumption in an area with rapidly expanding coverage of 'improved' water sources. Cross-sectional study of 914 peri-urban households in Kandal Province, Cambodia, between July-August 2011. We collected data from all households on water management, drinking water quality and factors potentially related to post-collection water contamination. Drinking water samples were taken directly from a subsample of household taps (n = 143), stored tap water (n = 124), other stored water (n = 92) and treated stored water (n = 79) for basic water quality analysis for Escherichia coli and other parameters. Household drinking water management was complex, with different sources used at any given time and across seasons. Rainwater was the most commonly used drinking water source. Households mixed different water sources in storage containers, including 'improved' with 'unimproved' sources. Piped water from taps deteriorated during storage (P < 0.0005), from 520 cfu/100 ml (coefficient of variation, CV: 5.7) E. coli to 1100 cfu/100 ml (CV: 3.4). Stored non-piped water (primarily rainwater) had a mean E. coli count of 1500 cfu/100 ml (CV: 4.1), not significantly different from stored piped water (P = 0.20). Microbial contamination of stored water was significantly associated with observed storage and handling practices, including dipping hands or receptacles in water (P < 0.005), and having an uncovered storage container (P = 0.052). The microbial quality of 'improved' water sources in our study area was not maintained at the point of consumption, possibly due to a combination of mixing water sources at the household level, unsafe storage and handling practices, and inadequately treated piped-to-plot water. These results have implications for refining international targets for safe drinking water access as well as the assumptions underlying global burden of disease estimates, which posit that 'improved' sources pose minimal risks of diarrhoeal diseases.

Shaheed A ，Orgill J ，Ratana C ，Montgomery MA ，Jeuland MA ，Brown J ... -  《-》