Seasonal variation in BCG-induced trained immunity.

The Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine is a well-established inducer of innate immune memory (also termed trained immunity), causing increased cytokine production upon heterologous secondary stimulation. Innate immune responses are known to be influenced by season, but whether seasons impact induction of trained immunity is not known. To explore the influence of season on innate immune memory induced by the BCG vaccine, we vaccinated healthy volunteers with BCG either during winter or spring. Three months later, we measured the ex vivo cytokine responses against heterologous stimuli, analyzed gene expressions and epigenetic signatures of the immune cells, and compared these with the baseline before vaccination. BCG vaccination during winter induced a stronger increase in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) upon stimulation with different bacterial and fungal stimuli, compared to BCG vaccination in spring. In contrast, winter BCG vaccination resulted in lower IFNγ release in PBMCs compared to spring BCG vaccination. Furthermore, NK cells of the winter-vaccinated people had a greater pro-inflammatory cytokine and IFNγ production capacity upon heterologous stimulation. BCG had only minor effects on the transcriptome of monocytes 3 months later. In contrast, we identified season-dependent epigenetic changes in monocytes and NK cells induced by vaccination, partly explaining the higher immune cell reactivity in the winter BCG vaccination group. These results suggest that BCG vaccination during winter is more prone to induce a robust trained immunity response by activating and reprogramming the immune cells, especially NK cells. (Dutch clinical trial registry no. NL58219.091.16).

Kilic G ，Debisarun PA ，Alaswad A ，Baltissen MP ，Lamers LA ，de Bree LCJ ，Benn CS ，Aaby P ，Dijkstra H ，Lemmers H ，Martens JHA ，Domínguez-Andrés J ，van Crevel R ，Li Y ，Xu CJ ，Netea MG ... -  《-》

Circadian rhythm influences induction of trained immunity by BCG vaccination.

de Bree LCJ ，Mourits VP ，Koeken VA ，Moorlag SJ ，Janssen R ，Folkman L ，Barreca D ，Krausgruber T ，Fife-Gernedl V ，Novakovic B ，Arts RJ ，Dijkstra H ，Lemmers H ，Bock C ，Joosten LA ，van Crevel R ，Benn CS ，Netea MG ... -  《-》

Alendronate modulates cytokine responses in healthy young individuals after BCG vaccination.

Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccination induces memory characteristics in innate immune cells and their progenitors, a process called trained immunity mediated by epigenetic and metabolic reprogramming. Cholesterol synthesis plays an amplifying role in trained immunity through mevalonate release. Nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates (N-BPs), such as alendronate, can inhibit cholesterol synthesis. We explored their effects on trained immunity induced by BCG in a placebo-controlled clinical study (NL74082.091.20) in young, healthy individuals. Participants receiving single-dose oral alendronate on the day of BCG vaccination had more neutrophils and plasma cells one month after treatment. Alendronate led to reduced proinflammatory cytokine production by PBMCs stimulated with heterologous bacterial and viral stimuli one month later. Furthermore, the addition of alendronate transcriptionally suppressed multiple immune response pathways in PBMCs upon stimulation. Our findings indicate that N-BPs modulate the long-lasting effects of BCG vaccination on the cytokine production capacity of innate immune cells.

Bulut O ，Kilic G ，Debisarun PA ，Röring RJ ，Sun S ，Kolkman M ，van Rijssen E ，Ten Oever J ，Koenen H ，Barreiro L ，Domínguez-Andrés J ，Netea MG ... -  《-》

BCG vaccination in humans inhibits systemic inflammation in a sex-dependent manner.

Koeken VA ，de Bree LCJ ，Mourits VP ，Moorlag SJ ，Walk J ，Cirovic B ，Arts RJ ，Jaeger M ，Dijkstra H ，Lemmers H ，Joosten LA ，Benn CS ，van Crevel R ，Netea MG ... -  《-》

The impact of BCG dose and revaccination on trained immunity.

The innate immune system can display heterologous memory-like responses termed trained immunity after stimulation by certain vaccinations or infections. In this randomized, placebo-controlled trial, we investigated the modulation of Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG)-induced trained immunity by BCG revaccination or high-dose BCG administration, in comparison to a standard dose. We show that monocytes from all groups of BCG-vaccinated individuals exerted increased TNFα production after ex-vivo stimulation with various unrelated pathogens. Similarly, we observed increased amounts of T-cell-derived IFNγ after M. tuberculosis exposure, regardless of the BCG intervention. NK cell cytokine production, especially after heterologous stimulation with the fungal pathogen Candida albicans, was predominantly boosted after high dose BCG administration. Cytokine production capacity before vaccination was inversely correlated with trained immunity. While the induction of a trained immunity profile is largely dose- or frequency independent, baseline cytokine production capacity is associated with the magnitude of the innate immune memory response after BCG vaccination.

Debisarun PA ，Kilic G ，de Bree LCJ ，Pennings LJ ，van Ingen J ，Benn CS ，Aaby P ，Dijkstra H ，Lemmers H ，Domínguez-Andrés J ，van Crevel R ，Netea MG ... -  《-》