Extreme freeze-tolerance in cryophilic tardigrades relies on controlled ice formation but does not involve significant change in transcription.

Subzero temperatures are among the most significant factors defining the distribution of organisms, yet, certain taxa have evolved to overcome this barrier. The microscopic tardigrades are among the most freeze-tolerant animals, with selected species reported to survive milli-Kelvin temperatures. Here, we estimate survival of fully hydrated eutardigrades of the species Ramazzottius varieornatus following exposures to -20 °C and  -80 °C as well as -196 °C with or without initial cooling to -80 °C. The tardigrades easily survive these temperatures, yet with a significant decrease in viability following rapid cooling by direct exposure to -196 °C. Hence, post-freeze recovery of R. varieornatus seems to rely on cooling rate and thus controlled ice formation. Cryophilic organisms are renowned for having cold-active enzymes that secure appropriate reaction rates at low temperatures. Hence, extreme freeze-tolerance in R. varieornatus could potentially involve syntheses of cryoprotectants and de novo transcription. We therefore generated a reference transcriptome for this cryophilic R. varieornatus population and explored for differential gene expression patterns following cooling to -80 °C as compared to active 5 °C controls. Specifically, we tested for fast transcription potentially occurring within 25 min of cooling from room temperature to a supercooling point of ca. -20 °C, at which the tardigrades presumably freeze and enter into the ametabolic state of cryobiosis. Our analyses revealed no evidence for differential gene expression. We, therefore, conclude that extreme freeze-tolerance in R. varieornatus relies on controlled extracellular freezing with any freeze-tolerance related genes being constitutively expressed.

Møbjerg A ，Kodama M ，Ramos-Madrigal J ，Neves RC ，Jørgensen A ，Schiøtt M ，Gilbert MTP ，Møbjerg N ... -  《-》

Freeze tolerance, supercooling points and ice formation: comparative studies on the subzero temperature survival of limno-terrestrial tardigrades.

Hengherr S ，Worland MR ，Reuner A ，Brümmer F ，Schill RO ... -  《JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY》

Thermotolerance experiments on active and desiccated states of Ramazzottius varieornatus emphasize that tardigrades are sensitive to high temperatures.

Neves RC ，Hvidepil LKB ，Sørensen-Hygum TL ，Stuart RM ，Møbjerg N ... -  《Scientific Reports》

Differential expression profiling of heat stressed tardigrades reveals major shift in the transcriptome.

Tardigrades are renowned for their extreme stress tolerance, which includes the ability to endure complete desiccation, high levels of radiation and very low sub-zero temperatures. Nevertheless, tardigrades appear to be vulnerable to high temperatures and thus the potential effects of global warming. Here, we provide the first analysis of transcriptome data obtained from heat stressed specimens of the eutardigrade Ramazzottius varieornatus, with the aim of providing new insights into the molecular processes affected by high temperatures. Specifically, we compare RNA-seq datasets obtained from active, heat-exposed (35 °C) tardigrades to that of active controls kept at 5 °C. Our data reveal a surprising shift in transcription, involving 9634 differentially expressed transcripts, corresponding to >35% of the transcriptome. The latter data are in striking contrast to the hitherto observed constitutive expression underlying tardigrade extreme stress tolerance and entrance into the latent state of life, known as cryptobiosis. Thus, when examining the molecular response, heat-stress appears to be more stressful for R. varieornatus than extreme conditions, such as desiccation or freezing. A gene ontology analysis reveals that the heat stress response involves a change in transcription and presumably translation, including an adjustment of metabolism, and, putatively, preparation for encystment and subsequent diapause. Among the differentially expressed transcripts we find heat-shock proteins as well as the eutardigrade specific proteins (CAHS, SAHS, MAHS, RvLEAM, and Dsup). The latter proteins thus seem to contribute to a general stress response, and may not be directly related to cryptobiosis.

Neves RC ，Møbjerg A ，Kodama M ，Ramos-Madrigal J ，Gilbert MTP ，Møbjerg N ... -  《-》

Ice crystallization and freeze tolerance in embryonic stages of the tardigrade Milnesium tardigradum.

In tardigrades, tolerance to low temperature is well known and allows them to cope with subzero temperatures in their environment. Although the ability to tolerate freezing body water has been demonstrated in some tardigrades, freeze tolerance of embryonic stages has been little studied, although this has ecological significance. In this study, we evaluated the subzero temperature survival of five different developmental stages of the eutardigrade species Milnesium tardigradum after freezing to -30 degrees C. Embryos were exposed to five different cooling rates between room temperature and -30 degrees C at 1 degrees C/h, 3 degrees C/h, 5 degrees C/h, 7 degrees C/h, and 9 degrees C/h followed by a warming period at 10 degrees C/h. The results showed that the developmental stage and the cooling rate have a significant effect on the hatching rate. Less developed embryonic stages were more sensitive to freezing at higher freezing rates than more developed stages. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) was used to determine the temperature of crystallization (Tc) in single embryos of the different developmental stages and revealed no differences between the stages. Based on the calorimetric data, we also conclude that the ice nucleation is homogeneous in embryonic stages in tardigrades, as also recently shown for fully developed tardigrades, and not triggered by nucleating agents.

Hengherr S ，Reuner A ，Brümmer F ，Schill RO ... -  《-》