Concentrations of legacy and novel brominated flame retardants in indoor dust in Melbourne, Australia: An assessment of human exposure.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and novel brominated flame retardants (NBFR) have been used in a range of polymers to inhibit the spread of fires but also have a propensity to migrate out of consumer materials and contaminate indoor dust. In this study, a total of 57 dust samples were collected from 12 homes, eight offices and eight vehicles in Melbourne, Australia and analysed for eight PBDEs (-28, -47, -99, -100, -153, -154, -183 and -209) and seven NBFRs (PBT, PBEB, HBB, EH-TBB, BEH-TEBP, BTBPE and DBDPE) to determine human exposure risks from dust ingestion. Samples were analysed using selective pressurized liquid extraction (S-PLE) and gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). Legacy and replacement flame retardants were detected in all samples with overall ∑PBDE concentrations ranging from 120 to 1700,000 ng/g (median 2100 ng/g) and ∑NBFRs ranging from 1.1 to 10,000 ng/g (median 1800 ng/g). BDE-209 and DBDPE were the dominant compounds in dust samples, followed by congeners associated with commercial Penta-BDE formulations (-47, -99, -100, -153 and -154) and then EH-TBB of the FireMaster 550 and BZ-54 products. ∑Penta-BDE concentrations were elevated in office samples compared with homes and vehicles, while EH-TBB and BDE-209 measured higher concentrations in vehicles compared with their respective levels in homes and offices. Risk assessment estimates revealed the majority of exposure to occur in the home for both adults and toddlers in the City of Melbourne. Generally, body weight adjusted exposure to PBDEs and NBFRs was predicted to be 1 to 2 orders of magnitude higher for toddlers than adults. Estimated rates of BDE-47, -99, -153 and -209 ingestion were each 2 orders of magnitude or more below the USEPA's prescribed oral reference dose values (RfDs) for typical exposure scenarios. However, exposure rates for BDE-47 and -99 reached as high as 52 and 95% of RfDs, respectively, for adults and 4.4 and 7.4%, respectively, for toddlers in high exposure scenarios. This study provides the first wide-ranging survey of NBFRs in indoor dust from homes, offices and vehicles in Australia and offers further evidence of human exposure to legacy and novel brominated flame retardants via dust ingestion.

McGrath TJ ，Morrison PD ，Ball AS ，Clarke BO ... -  《-》

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and novel brominated flame retardants in indoor dust of different microenvironments in Beijing, China.

The occurrence levels of eight polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and four novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) were determined and compared in indoor dust from different microenvironments (21 homes, 23 offices and 16 day care centers) in Beijing, China. Concentrations of ∑8PBDEs in dust were 430-17,000 ng/g, 690-8600 ng/g, and 90-2300 ng/g for homes, offices, and day care centers, respectively, and were dominated by BDE-209. Concentrations of ∑4NBFRs ranged from 310 to 17,000 ng/g, 300 to 4300 ng/g, and not detected to 500 ng/g for homes, offices, and day care centers, respectively, and were dominated by bis(2-ethylhexyl)-3,4,5,6-tetrabromophthalate (BEH-TEBP) and decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE) across microenvironments. The results showed an increasing detection and elevated concentration of NBFRs (especially BEH-TEBP), indicating that monitoring of NBFRs in dust samples should be of concern in future studies. A notable finding was that the BFR concentrations in dust samples from day care centers were generally one order of magnitude lower than those from homes and offices in the present study. This implies that previous estimates of toddler exposure via dust ingestion on data from homes may be overestimated. Concentrations of BDE-209 and ∑8PBDEs were found to be significantly higher in elevated surface dust than floor dust from day care centers. The estimates of daily intakes of BFRs via dust ingestion for Chinese adults and toddlers using Monte Carlo analysis were 2-5 orders of magnitude lower than the corresponding reference daily intakes.

Bu Q ，Wu D ，Xia J ，Wu M ，Liu X ，Cao Z ，Yu G ... -  《-》

Occurrence and human exposure to brominated and organophosphorus flame retardants via indoor dust in a Brazilian city.

Indoor dust is considered an important human exposure route to flame retardants (FRs), which has arised concern due the toxic properties of some of these substances. In this study, ten organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs), eight polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and four new brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) were determined in indoor dust from different places in Araraquara-SP (Brazil). The sampled places included houses, apartments, offices, primary schools and cars. The analysis of the sample extracts was performed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry and two ionization techniques were used (electron ionization - EI; electron capture negative ionization - ECNI). OPFRs were the most abundant compounds and tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP), tris(phenyl) phosphate (TPHP), tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) and tris(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCIPP) were present at the highest concentrations. Among the brominated FRs, the most ubiquitous compounds were BDE-209, bis(2-ethylhexyl) tetrabromophthalate (BEH-TEBP) and decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE). Statistical analysis revealed that there were differences among dust typologies for TBOEP, TDCIPP, ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPHP), BDE-209, 2-ethylhexyl 2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate (EH-TBB), BEH-TEBP and DBDPE, which were attributed to different construction materials in each particular environment and to the age of the buildings. The highest levels of brominated FRs were observed in offices, TBOEP was at high concentration in primary schools, and TDCIPP was at high concentration in cars. A preliminary risk assessment revealed that toddlers were exposed to TBOEP levels higher than the reference dose when considering the worst case scenario. The results obtained in this study showed for the first time that although Brazil does not regulate the use of FRs, these substances are present in indoor dust at levels similar to the observed in countries that have strict fire safety standards, and that humans are exposed to complex mixtures of these contaminants via indoor dust.

Cristale J ，Aragão Belé TG ，Lacorte S ，Rodrigues de Marchi MR ... -  《-》

Legacy and novel brominated flame retardants in interior car dust - Implications for human exposure.

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are organobromine compounds with an inhibitory effect on combustion chemistry tending to reduce the flammability of products. Concerns about health effects and environmental threats have led to phase-out or restrictions in the use of Penta-, Octa- and Deca-BDE technical formulations, increasing the demand for Novel BFRs (NBFRs) as replacements for the banned formulations. This study examined the occurrence of legacy and NBFRs in the dust from the interior of private cars in Thessaloniki, Greece, aged from 1 to 19 years with variable origin and characteristics. The determinants included 20 Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) (Di-to Deca-BDEs), four NBFRs such as Decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE), 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE), 2-ethylhexyl-2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate (TBB), and bis(2-ethylhexyl)-3,4,5,6-tetrabromophthalate (TBPH), three isomers of hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA). The concentrations of ∑20PBDE ranged from 132 to 54,666 ng g-1 being dominated by BDE-209. The concentrations of ∑4NBFRs ranged from 48 to 7626 ng g-1 and were dominated by DBDPE, the major substitute of BDE-209. HBCDs ranged between <5 and 1745 ng g-1, with alpha-HBCD being the most prevalent isomer Finally, the concentrations of TBBPA varied from <10 to 1064 ng g-1. The concentration levels and composition profiles of BFRs were investigated in relation to the characteristics of cars, such as year of manufacture, country of origin, and interior equipment (type of car seats, electronic and electrical components, ventilation, etc.). The average daily intakes of selected BFRs (BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-153, BDE-209, TBB, BTBPE, TBPH, DBDPE, HBCDs and TBBPA) via ingestion and dermal absorption were estimated for adults and toddlers. The potential health risk due to BFRs was found to be several orders of magnitude lower than their corresponding reference dose (RfD) values.

Besis A ，Christia C ，Poma G ，Covaci A ，Samara C ... -  《-》

Contamination status, emission sources, and human health risk of brominated flame retardants in urban indoor dust from Hanoi, Vietnam: the replacement of legacy polybrominated diphenyl ether mixtures by alternative formulations.

This study investigated the occurrence, distribution of several additive brominated flame retardants (BFRs) such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and some novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) in urban indoor dust collected from ten inner districts of Hanoi, Vietnam to assess the contamination status, emission sources, as well as their associated human exposure through indoor dust ingestion and health risks. Total concentrations of PBDEs and NBFRs in indoor dust samples ranged from 43 to 480 ng g-1 (median 170 ng g-1) and from 56 to 2200 ng g-1 (median 180 ng g-1), respectively. The most abundant PBDE congener in these dust samples was BDE-209 with concentrations ranging from 29 to 360 ng g-1, accounting for 62.6-86.5% of total PBDE levels. Among the NBFRs analyzed, decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) was the predominant compound with a mean contribution of 98.6% total NBFR amounts. Significant concentrations of DBDPE were detected in all dust samples (median 180 ng g-1, range 54-2200 ng g-1), due to DBDPE as a substitute for deca-BDE. Other NBFRs such as 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy) ethane (BTBPE), pentabromoethylbenzene (PBEB) and 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexabromobiphenyl (BB-153) were found at very low levels. Based on the measured BFR concentrations, daily intake doses (IDs) of PBDEs and NBFRs via dust ingestion at exposure scenarios using the median and 95th percentile levels for both adults and children were calculated for risk assessment. The results showed that the daily exposure doses via dust ingestion of all compounds, even in the high-exposure scenarios were also lower than their reference dose (RfD) values. The lifetime cancer risks (LTCR) were much lower than the threshold level (10-6), which indicated the acceptable health risks resulting from indoor BFRs exposure for urban residents in Hanoi.

Hoang MTT ，Anh HQ ，Kadokami K ，Duong HT ，Hoang HM ，Van Nguyen T ，Takahashi S ，Le GT ，Trinh HT ... -  《-》