Organophosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) and plasticizers in house and car dust and the influence of electronic equipment.

All nine PFRs studied were detected in house and car dust from the Netherlands with the exception of tris(butyl) phosphate (TNBP) and tris(isobutyl) phosphate (TIBP) in car dust. Tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP, median 22 μg g(-1)) was dominant in house dust collected around and on electronics followed by tris(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCIPP, median 1.3 μg g(-1)), tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP, median 1.3 μg g(-1)) and tris(phenyl) phosphate (TPHP, median 0.8 μg g(-1)). Levels of TPHP and tris(methylphenyl) phosphate (TMPP, also known as TCP) in house dust on electronics were significantly higher than in house dust collected around electronics, suggesting that electronic equipment has limited contribution to the PFR levels in house dust, with the exception of TPHP and TMPP. Car dust was dominated by tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) with the highest levels found in dust collected from the car seats (1100 μg g(-1)). The mean TDCIPP and TCIPP levels observed in car dust were significantly higher than the levels observed in dust collected around electronics. Significantly higher mean TMPP levels in dust taken from car seats were found compared to dust collected around the equipment (p<0.05). This is probably influenced by the use of TDCIPP, TCIPP in polyurethane foam (car seats) and the use of TMPP as plasticizer in car interiors. Worldwide four PFR patterns were observed in house dust. The PFR pattern in the Netherlands of TDCIPP, TMPP, TCEP, TCIPP and TPHP in house dust is comparable to the pattern found in six other countries, which may point to identical sources of these PFRs in the indoor environment. However, the PFR levels between the countries and within countries showed high variation.

Brandsma SH ，de Boer J ，van Velzen MJ ，Leonards PE ... -  《-》

Exposure assessment of organophosphorus and organobromine flame retardants via indoor dust from elementary schools and domestic houses.

To assess the exposure of flame retardants (FRs) for school-children, organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers (PFRs) and organobromine flame retardants (BFRs) were determined in the indoor dust samples collected from elementary schools and domestic houses in Japan in 2009 and 2010. PFRs were detected in all the dust samples analyzed and the highest concentration of total PFRs was thousand-fold higher than that of BFRs. Among the PFRs, tris(butoxyethyl)phosphate (TBOEP) showed the highest concentration with a median (med.) of 270,000 ng g(-1) dry weight (3700-5,500,000 ng g(-1) dry weight), followed by tris(methylphenyl)phosphate (TMPPs)>triphenyl phosphate (TPHP)=tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate (TDCIPP)=tris(2-chloroisopropyl)phosphate (TCIPP)=tris(2chloroethyl)phosphate (TCEP)>ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPP). Significantly higher concentrations of TBOEP, tri-n-butyl phosphate (TNBP), TPHP, TMPPs, and total-PFRs were found in dust samples from elementary schools than from domestic houses. It might be due to that higher concentrations of TBOEP (as leveling agent) were detected from the floor polisher/wax products collected in those elementary schools. On the other hand, significantly higher concentrations of TCEP, TCIPPs, and total chloroalkyl-PFRs were found in domestic houses than in elementary schools. Exposure assessments of PFRs via indoor dust from elementary schools and domestic houses were conducted by calculating the hazard quotient (HQ). Among PFRs, HQs for TBOEP exceeded 1 (higher than reference dose: RfD) and its highest value was 1.9. To reduce the intake of TBOEP by school-children, it is recommended that the use of floor polisher/wax containing TBOEP be reduced in schools.

Mizouchi S ，Ichiba M ，Takigami H ，Kajiwara N ，Takamuku T ，Miyajima T ，Kodama H ，Someya T ，Ueno D ... -  《-》

Tracing organophosphorus and brominated flame retardants and plasticizers in an estuarine food web.

Nine organophosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) were detected in a pelagic and benthic food web of the Western Scheldt estuary, The Netherlands. Concentrations of several PFRs were an order of magnitude higher than those of the brominated flame retardants (BFRs). However, the detection frequency of the PFRs (6-56%) was lower than that of the BFRs (50-97%). Tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP), tris(isobutyl) phosphate (TIBP) and tris(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCIPP) were the dominant PFRs in sediment with median concentrations of 7.0, 8.1 and 1.8 ng/g dry weight (dw), respectively. PFR levels in the suspended particular matter (SPM) were 2-12 times higher than that in sediment. TBOEP, TCIPP, TIBP, tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) and tris(phenyl) phosphate (TPHP) were found in organisms higher in the estuarine food web. The highest PFR concentrations in the benthic food web were found in sculpin, goby and lugworm with median concentrations of 17, 7.4, 4.6 and 2.0 ng/g wet weight (ww) for TBOEP, TIBP, TCIPP and TPHP, respectively. Comparable levels were observed in the pelagic food web, BDE209 was the predominant PBDE in sediment and SPM with median concentrations up to 9.7 and 385 ng/g dw, respectively. BDE47 was predominant in the biotic compartment of the food web with highest median levels observed in sculpin and common tern eggs of 79 ng/g lipid weight (lw) (2.5 ng/g ww) and 80 ng/g lw (11 ng/g ww), respectively. Trophic magnification was observed for all PBDEs with the exception of BDE209. Indications of trophic magnification of PFRs were observed in the benthic food web for TBOEP, TCIPP and TCEP with tentative trophic magnification factors of 3.5, 2.2 and 2.6, respectively (p<0.05). Most of the other PFRs showed trophic dilution in both food webs. The relative high PFR levels in several fish species suggest high emissions and substantial exposure of organisms to PFRs in the Western Scheldt.

Brandsma SH ，Leonards PE ，Leslie HA ，de Boer J ... -  《-》

Brominated and organophosphorus flame retardants in body wipes and house dust, and an estimation of house dust hand-loadings in Dutch toddlers.

Children generally have higher Flame Retardant (FR) concentrations in serum compared to other age groups. Toddler behavior enhances direct contact with house dust since their frequent presence proximate to the floor, and their mouthing behavior. This study aimed to thoroughly investigate FR levels in body wipes of toddlers 8-18 months old) and in indoor dust using a noninvasive sampling technique. In this cross-sectional study, body wipes from hands, mouth and back, and indoor household dust samples were collected in twenty-one families and analyzed for one brominated- and seven organophosphorus FRs (polybrominated diphenyl ether 209 (BDE209), tris(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCIPP), tris(chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCIPP), tris(phenyl) phosphate (TPHP), tris(methylphenyl) phosphate (TMPP), resorcinol bis(diphenyl phosphate) and bisphenol A bis(diphenyl phosphate)). Accelerated solvent extraction was used for extraction and the extract was measured with liquid chromatography combined with mass spectrometry. Non-parametric correlation analyses were performed to assess associations. All FRs were detected in body- and indoor dust samples (median range: 1.0ng/hand wipe (BDE209) to 65ng/hand wipe (TCIPP)) and were mostly correlated with each other. We estimated that approximately 260mg dust (range 50-880mg) accumulated on toddler's hands per day. Hand-to-mouth frequency was negatively associated with FR levels in wipes (τ = -0.38, p = 0.04). With increasing age FR concentrations (BDE209, TCEP, TDCIPP, TPHP and TMPP) on hands decreased significantly (p = 0.01-0.03). Girls had significantly less FRs (TCEP, TCIPP, TPHP and TMPP) on the hands (p = 0.01-0.03) than boys. This is to the best of the authors' knowledge the first study in Europe that measured brominated- as well as organophosphorus FRs in several types of body wipes from toddlers and that estimated the amount of house dust that accumulates on toddler's hands.

Sugeng EJ ，Leonards PEG ，van de Bor M 《-》

Legacy and emerging organophosphοrus flame retardants in car dust from Greece: Implications for human exposure.

Organophosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) and emerging PFRs (ePFRs) are two groups of compounds used as replacements for brominated flame retardants (BFRs). They have already been detected in indoor dust (mainly in homes and offices). To date, few studies investigated the occurrence of FRs in car dust and the information of possible health risks is still limited. The present study reports on the investigation of the levels and profiles of eight target PFRs: tris(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate (TEHP), tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBEP), triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPHP), tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCIPP), tri cresyl phosphate (TCP), tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) and four target ePFRs; 2,2-bis(chloromethyl)propane-1,3-diyltetrakis(2-chloroethyl)bisphosphate (V6), isodecyl diphenyl phosphate (iDDPHP), resorcinol bis(diphenylphosphate) (RDP) and bisphenol A-bis(diphenyl phosphate) (BDP) in car dust from Greece. The samples were collected from the interior of 25 private cars in Thessaloniki, Greece, with different years of manufacture (1997-2015) and continents of origin. After ultrasonic extraction and Florisil fractionation, the PFR analysis was carried out by GC-EI/MS, whereas the ePFRs were analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Levels of Σ8PFRs varied from 2000 to 190,000 ng g-1, with mean and median concentrations of 20,000 and 11,500 ng g-1, respectively. The concentrations of Σ4ePFRs ranged from 44 to 8700 ng g-1, with mean and median values at 1100 and 190 ng g-1, respectively. Estimations of human exposure showed that toddlers are more exposed than adults to both PFRs and ePFRs. Yet, the intake via dust ingestion and dermal absorption was several orders of magnitude lower than the corresponding reference doses.

Christia C ，Poma G ，Besis A ，Samara C ，Covaci A ... -  《-》