Prevalence and risk factors of diabetic retinopathy in migrant Indians in an urbanized society in Asia: the Singapore Indian eye study.

To describe the prevalence of and risk factors for diabetic retinopathy (DR) in Indian persons living in a newly urbanized society in Asia. Population-based study. Ethnic Indians aged ≥40 years living in Singapore. The Singapore Indian Eye Study was conducted between 2007 and 2009. All participants underwent an extensive ophthalmic examination, including retinal photographs obtained after pupil dilation. These images were graded for the presence and severity of DR using the modified Airlie House classification system. Diabetes was defined as hemoglobin A1c level of ≥6.5%, use of diabetic medication, or a physician diagnosis of diabetes. Risk factors were measured using questionnaires, clinical assessments, or laboratory tests. Any DR, diabetic macular edema (DME), or vision-threatening DR (VTDR). Among the 3400 participants, the age-standardized prevalence was 33.6% (95% confidence interval [CI], 31.4-35.8) for diabetes and 10.5% (95% CI, 9.3-11.8) for DR. Among those with diabetes only, the age-standardized prevalence was 30.4% (95% CI, 26.5-34.8) for any DR, 7.2% (95% CI, 5.3-9.7) for DME, and 7.1% (95% CI, 5.4-9.5) for VTDR. In multivariate analysis, independent risk factors for any DR were younger age (odds ratio [OR], 0.98; 95% CI, 0.96-1.00, per year increase), longer diabetes duration (OR, 1.09; 95% CI, 1.07-1.11 per year increase), higher hemoglobin A1c (OR, 1.23; 95% CI, 1.13-1.34 per percent increase), higher systolic blood pressure (OR, 1.01; 95% CI, 1.00-1.02 per 1-mmHg increase), lower diastolic blood pressure (OR, 0.97; 95% CI, 0.96-0.99 per 1-mmHg increase), history of previous stroke (OR, 2.16; 95% CI, 1.12-4.16), and insulin treatment (OR, 2.99; 95% CI, 1.84-4.87). Similar independent risk factors, except for blood pressure, were found for VTDR. Additionally, persons with lower income and living in smaller houses were associated with VTDR. One in 3 migrant Indians living in newly urbanized Asian societies have diabetes and 1 in 10 has DR. This is similar to rates reported in Western populations and significantly higher than those reported in India.

Zheng Y ，Lamoureux EL ，Lavanya R ，Wu R ，Ikram MK ，Wang JJ ，Mitchell P ，Cheung N ，Aung T ，Saw SM ，Wong TY ... -  《-》

Ethnic Differences in the Prevalence and Risk Factors of Diabetic Retinopathy: The Singapore Epidemiology of Eye Diseases Study.

To evaluate the prevalence and risk factors for diabetic retinopathy (DR) in the Singapore Epidemiology of Eye Diseases (SEED) Study. Population-based, cross-sectional study. Persons of Malay, Indian, and Chinese ethnicity aged 40+ years, living in Singapore. Diabetes was defined as nonfasting plasma glucose ≥200 mg/dl (11.1 mmol/l), glycated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) >6.5%, self-reported physician-diagnosed diabetes, or the use of glucose-lowering medication. Retinal photographs, were graded for the presence and severity of DR using the modified Airlie House classification system. Diabetic retinopathy, diabetic macular edema (DME), vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy (VTDR), defined as the presence of severe nonproliferative or proliferative DR, or clinically significant macular edema (CSME). Of the 10 033 subjects, 2877 (28.7%) had diabetes and gradable photographs for analysis. The overall age-standardized prevalence (95% confidence interval [CI]) was 28.2% (25.9-30.6) for any DR, 7.6% (6.5-9.0) for DME, and 7.7% (6.6-9.0) for VTDR. Indians had a higher prevalence of any DR (30.7% vs. 26.2% in Chinese and 25.5% in Malays, P = 0.012); a similar trend was noted for any DME (P = 0.001) and CSME (P = 0.032). Independent risk factors for any DR were Indian ethnicity (odds ratio [OR], 1.41; 95% CI, 1.09-1.83, vs. Chinese), diabetes duration (OR, 1.10; 95% CI, 1.08-1.11, per year), HbA1c (OR, 1.25; 95% CI, 1.18-1.32, per %), serum glucose (OR, 1.03; 95% CI, 1.00-1.06, per mmol/l), and systolic blood pressure (OR, 1.14; 95% CI, 1.09-1.19, per 10 mmHg). Diastolic blood pressure (OR, 0.74; 95% CI, 0.65-0.84, per 10 mmHg increase), total cholesterol (OR, 0.87; 95% CI, 0.80-0.95, per mmol/l increase), and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (OR, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.74-0.92, per mmol/l increase) were associated with lower odds of any DR. Risk factors were largely similar across the 3 ethnic groups. Indian Singaporeans have a higher prevalence of DR and DME compared with Chinese and Malays. Major risk factors for DR in this study were similar across the 3 ethnic groups. Addressing these risk factors may reduce the impact of DR in Asia, regardless of ethnicity.

Tan GS ，Gan A ，Sabanayagam C ，Tham YC ，Neelam K ，Mitchell P ，Wang JJ ，Lamoureux EL ，Cheng CY ，Wong TY ... -  《-》

Prevalence and determinants of undiagnosed diabetic retinopathy and vision-threatening retinopathy in a multiethnic Asian cohort: the Singapore Epidemiology of Eye Diseases (SEED) study.

To determine the prevalence and risk factors of undiagnosed diabetic retinopathy (DR), in particular vision-threatening DR (VTDR) in a multiethnic Asian cohort. A population-based survey of 3353 Chinese, 3280 Malays and 3400 Indians (73.6% response) aged 40-80 years residing in Singapore. Diabetes mellitus (DM) was defined as random glucose ≥11.1 mmol/L, use of diabetic medication or a previous physician diagnosis. DR severity was graded from retinal photographs following the modified Airlie House classification. VTDR was defined as the presence of severe non-proliferative DR (NPDR), proliferative DR (PDR) or clinically significant macular oedema (CSMO), using the Eye Diseases Prevalence Research Group definition. Participants were deemed 'undiagnosed' if they reported no prior physician diagnosis in structured interviews, in those with the condition. Of 10 033 participants, 2376 had DM (23.7%), of which 805 (33.9%) had DR. Among 2376 with DM, 11.1% (n=263) were undiagnosed. Among 805 with DR, 671 (83.3%) were undiagnosed. Among 212 with VTDR, 59 (27.3%) were undiagnosed. In multivariate models, factors associated with undiagnosed VTDR were higher low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (OR=1.53, 95% CI 0.99 to 2.35, p=0.05) and absence of visual impairment or blindness in any eye in terms of best-corrected vision OR=3.00, 95% CI 1.47 to 6.11, p=0.003). In this community, a quarter with VTDR is undiagnosed, and 8 in 10 with any DR are undiagnosed, compared with only 1 in 10 with DM undiagnosed. These findings suggest that screening for diabetes is successful, while screening for DR is currently inadequate in our population. Public health strategies to aid early diagnosis of DR in Singapore are urgently warranted to reduce blindness due to diabetes.

Huang OS ，Tay WT ，Ong PG ，Sabanayagam C ，Cheng CY ，Tan GS ，Cheung GC ，Lamoureux EL ，Wong TY ... -  《-》

Six-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy in Indian adults: the Singapore Indian Eye study.

Diabetes is a major public health problem in migrants and ethnic minorities worldwide. We determined the incidence and risk factors of diabetic retinopathy (DR) in migrant Indians living in Singapore. We included data from 759 Indian adults with diabetes, who participated in the baseline (aged 40-80 years, 2007-2009) and 6-year follow-up 2012-2015 of the Singapore Indian Eye Study. Retinal photographs were graded for the presence and severity of DR using modified Airlie House Classification. Incidence was assessed in participants who were free of DR at baseline visit (n=501), while progression in those with DR but free of proliferative DR at baseline visit (n=189). Risk factors included demographic, lifestyle, socioeconomic, family history, genes, duration of diabetes, glycaemic control, insulin use, ocular and clinical factors. The 6-year age-standardised DR incidence and progression were 21.89% and 33.45%, respectively. HbA1c (risk ratio (RR) 1.41, 95% CI 1.28 to 1.55 per unit increase), current smoking (RR 1.63, 95% CI 1.02 to 2.62) and insulin use (RR 2.63, 95% CI 1.44 to 4.82) were associated with higher incidence, whereas estimated cerebrospinal fluid pressure (RR 0.90, 95% CI 0.82 to 0.98) and body mass index (BMI) (RR 0.74, 95% CI 0.60 to 0.93) were associated with lower incidence of DR. Higher HbA1c (RR 1.26, 95% CI 1.13 to 1.42), BMI (RR 1.26, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.56) and estimated cerebrospinal fluid pressure (RR 1.11, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.21) were associated with DR progression. The population attributable risk of HbA1c >8% was 41.29% and 49.63% for DR incidence and progression. DR incidence and progression in migrant Indians living in Singapore was more than double that reported in Indians living in urban India. Consistent with past studies, poor glycaemic control was an important predictor for incidence and progression of DR.

Kumari N ，Bhargava M ，Nguyen DQ ，Gan ATL ，Tan G ，Cheung N ，Tan N ，Wong C ，Wang JJ ，Mitchell P ，Lamoureux EL ，Cheng CY ，Wong TY ，Sabanayagam C ... -  《-》

Prevalence and risk factors for diabetic retinopathy in Asian Indians with young onset type 1 and type 2 diabetes.

To assess the prevalence and risk factors for diabetic retinopathy (DR) in people with young onset type 1 (T1DM-Y) and type 2 diabetes (T2DM-Y). T1DM-Y(n=150) and T2DM-Y(n=150) participants, age between 10 and 25 years at diagnosis, had a complete clinical evaluation, biochemical assessment, and four field digital retinal colour photography. The Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study grading system was used to grade DR. Proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) and diabetic macular edema (DME) were considered as sight threatening DR. The prevalence of any DR was 53.3% [95% CI 45.3-61.3] in T1DM-Y (duration of diabetes: 12.4±7.4 years) and 52.7% [44.7-60.7] in T2DM-Y (11.8±8.3 years). The age and gender adjusted prevalence of DR, DME and PDR was 62.5%, 10% and 7.3% in T1DM-Y, whereas it was 65.8%,12.7% and 9.3% in T2DM-Y respectively. In multivariable logistic regression, diabetes duration [Odds ratio (OR) 1.99 per 5 years; CI 1.42-2.79], waist circumference [1.28 per 5 cm;1.05-1.56] and microalbuminuria [2.39 per 50 μg;1.07-5.31] were associated with DR in T1DM-Y, and diabetes duration [2.21 per 5 years; 1.61-3.02], diastolic blood pressure [1.54 per 5 mmHg;1.18-2.02], Glycated hemoglobin [1.37 per %;1.07-1.75] and lower stimulated C-peptide [1.54 per 0.5 pmol/ml;1.15-2.05;] were associated with DR in T2DM-Y. Over half of the people with young-onset diabetes, regardless of type, have retinopathy within 10-12 years of diabetes duration, emphasizing the need for regular eye screening and aggressive control of glucose and blood pressure to prevent DR.

Rajalakshmi R ，Amutha A ，Ranjani H ，Ali MK ，Unnikrishnan R ，Anjana RM ，Narayan KM ，Mohan V ... -  《-》