Pharmacokinetics of thiamine in female Baltic salmon (Salmo salar L.) broodfish.

A thiamine deficiency disease termed M74 syndrome affects the yolk-sac fry of wild and feral Baltic salmon. However, very little is known about the pharmacokinetics of thiamine in salmon. This study examined the pharmacokinetics of thiamine hydrochloride injected intraperitoneally into feral and farmed Baltic salmon females preparing for spawning. The total thiamine concentrations in the eggs and white muscle of feral females were only half of those in the farmed fish after injection. The relative inefficiency of the incorporation of thiamine into the eggs in feral Baltic salmon may be a predisposition factor for M74 syndrome. The relative bioavailability of intraperitoneally-injected thiamine hydrochloride was shown to be ca. 94% of that administered intra-aortically. A far lower intraperitoneal dose (ca. 20mgkg(-1) fish) than currently used was shown to elevate the total thiamine concentration in the eggs above the critical threshold of M74 syndrome.

Koski P ，Bäckman C ，Pelkonen O 《ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY》

Treatment with thiamine hydrochloride and astaxanthine for the prevention of yolk-sac mortality in Baltic salmon fry (M74 syndrome).

Two practical methods are reported for treating feral Baltic salmon with thiamine hydrochloride against M74 syndrome (abnormally high yolk-sac fry mortality of the Baltic salmon). Both bathing of the yolk-sac fry in thiamine hydrochloride (1000 mg l-1, 1 h) and a single intraperitoneal injection given to the female brood fish (100 mg kg-1 fish) during the summer 3 mo before stripping were shown to elevate the whole body total thiamine concentration in the fry. Both treatments were also shown to be effective in preventing mortality due to M74 syndrome. The effect of bathing the yolk-sac fry was shown to be dose-dependent. The results support the view that there is a causal relationship between the thiamine status of the yolk-sac fry and M74 mortality. An intraperitoneal injection of astaxanthine suspension administered to the female brood fish (11 mg kg-1 fish) in the summer 3 mo before stripping elevated the astaxanthine concentration in the eggs but did not affect mortality due to M74 syndrome. An interaction between astaxanthine and thiamine may occur in the developing embryo or yolk-sac fry, however. No association could be demonstrated between the various thiamine hydrochloride treatment practices and hepatic cytochrome P450 dependent 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity in the yolk-sac fry. An injection of thiamine hydrochloride into the peritoneal cavity of wild Baltic salmon females could be used to raise thiamine concentrations in their offspring in the rivers. The effect on smolt production in Finnish Baltic salmon rivers needs to be investigated further, however.

Koski P ，Pakarinen M ，Nakari T ，Soivio A ，Hartikainen K ... -  《DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS》

Baltic salmon (Salmo salar) yolk-sac fry mortality is associated with disturbances in the function of hypoxia-inducible transcription factor (HIF-1alpha) and consecutive gene expression.

Baltic salmon (Salmo salar) suffer from abnormally high yolk-sac fry mortality designated as M74-syndrome. In 1990s, 25-80% of salmon females, which ascended rivers to spawn, produced yolk-sac fry suffering from the syndrome. Symptoms of M74-affected fry include neurological disturbances, impaired vascular development and abnormal haemorrhages. The latter symptoms are observed in mammalian embryos if the function of hypoxia inducible transcription factor (HIF-1alpha), its dimerization partner aryl hydrocarbon nuclear translocator (ARNT) or target gene vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is disturbed. To study the possible involvement of HIF-1alpha and its target gene VEGF in the development of the syndrome, we collected healthy and M74-affected wild Baltic salmon yolk-sac fry and analyzed HIF-1alpha mRNA and protein expression, HIF-1alpha DNA-binding, target gene VEGF protein expression, and blood vessel density in both groups at different stages of yolk-sac fry development. In addition, since Baltic salmon females contain organochlorine contaminants, which have been suggested to be the cause of M74 syndrome via the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)-dependent gene expression pathway, we studied AhR protein expression, AhR DNA-binding and target gene CYP1A protein expression. Since the parents of both healthy and M74-affected wild fry will have experienced the organochlorine load from the Baltic Sea, hatchery-reared fry were included in the studies as an additional control. The results show that the vascular defects observed in fry suffering from M74 are associated with reduced DNA-binding activity of HIF-1alpha and subsequent downregulation of its target gene vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). In addition, also AhR function is decreased in diseased fry making it unlikely that symptoms of M74-affected fry would be caused by an upregulation of xenobiotically induced AhR-dependent gene expression pathway.

Vuori KA ，Soitamo A ，Vuorinen PJ ，Nikinmaa M ... -  《AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY》

Fatty acid signatures connect thiamine deficiency with the diet of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) feeding in the Baltic Sea.

Keinänen M ，Käkelä R ，Ritvanen T ，Pönni J ，Harjunpää H ，Myllylä T ，Vuorinen PJ ... -  《-》

Physiological, biochemical and morphological studies of Baltic salmon yolk-sac fry with an experimental thiamine deficiency: relations to the M74 syndrome.

Sea-run Baltic salmon (Salmo salar) populations are suffering from the M74 syndrome, a reproduction disorder affecting both broodfish and their progeny. The syndrome is usually manifested during the middle part of the yolk-sac fry stage and has been shown to be associated with a thiamine (vitamin B(1)) deficiency. Development of the disease is reversible by thiamine treatments of broodfish or progeny. This study aimed at investigating the ability of the thiamine antagonist pyrithiamine, administered by microinjections 3 days after hatch, to cause M74-like signs i.e. typical clinical symptoms, high mortality rates and histopathological changes. Furthermore, the effects of pyrithiamine on hepatic activities of the thiamine-dependent enzyme transketolase (TK), the glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) and the cytochrome P4501A (CYP1A) were evaluated. Six family groups with differing thiamine status were sampled on three occasions during the yolk-sac fry stage. All pyrithiamine exposed groups, with the exception of the one with the highest thiamine concentration, showed M74-like symptoms and suffered from high mortality. Enzyme activities were not different in pyrithiamine groups as compared with controls. However, the TK-activities were strongly associated with the thiamine concentrations. The G6PDH-activity demonstrated small variations with the highest activities in the M74-groups. The [TK]/[G6PDH]-ratios were considerably lower in the M74-groups than in the healthy controls, indicating an imbalance between the oxidative and the non-oxidative part of the pentose-phosphate shunt due to a deficit in thiamine. The pyrithiamine-injections induced several M74-like symptoms including incoordination, lethargy, whitened liver and yolk-sac precipitates. They also caused high mortality rates, in addition to lowered glycogen levels and increased prevalence of necrotic brain cells. Moreover, the study demonstrates that the TK, G6PDH and CYP1A-activities are associated with the thiamine content.

Amcoff P ，Akerman G ，Tjärnlund U ，Börjeson H ，Norrgren L ，Balk L ... -  《AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY》