Occurrence of drugs of abuse and benzodiazepines in river waters from the Madrid Region (Central Spain).
This work investigates, for the first time, the occurrence of 10 drugs of abuse, six metabolites, and three benzodiazepines in surface waters from the Jarama and Manzanares Rivers in the Madrid Region, the most densely populated area in Spain and one of the most densely populated in Europe. The results of this study have shown the presence of 14 out of the 19 compounds analyzed at concentrations ranging from 1.45 to 1020 ng L(-1). The most ubiquitous compounds, found in 100% of the samples, were the cocaine metabolite benzoylecgonine (BE), the amphetamine-like compound ephedrine (EPH), the opioids morphine (MOR), methadone (METH), and the METH metabolite 2-ethylene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP), and the three investigated benzodiazepines alprazolam (ALP), diazepam (DIA) and lorazepam (LOR). Meanwhile, the largest concentrations observed corresponded to EPH (up to 1020 ng L(-1)), BE (823 ng L(-1)), EDDP (151 ng L(-1)), and LOR (167 ng L(-1)). The only not detected compounds were heroin (HER) and its metabolite 6-acetylmorphine (6ACM), lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and its metabolite 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD (OH-LSD), and Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Overall, the levels measured are comparatively higher than those previously reported in Europe. Comparison of the results obtained for samples collected on different days (Thursday and Sunday) did not show meaningful differences between weekdays and weekends. The lack of (eco)toxicological data does not permit to predict or disregard potential adverse effects on wildlife. Risk assessment in humans would require further knowledge, not currently available, on exposure to these compounds through other routes like drinking water and/or food.
Mendoza A
，López de Alda M
，González-Alonso S
，Mastroianni N
，Barceló D
，Valcárcel Y
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Evaluation of drugs of abuse use and trends in a prison through wastewater analysis.
Illicit drugs and metabolites have been recognized recently as a group of emerging contaminants of concern, as a consequence of their high volumes of use and production. Drug residue levels in the aquatic environment have also been pointed out as good indicators of illicit drug abuse. The present work assesses for the first time drug abuse in a penal complex from the levels of different drug residues measured in the prison sewage waters and evaluates the suitability of this approach to track and control illicit drug usage in such facilities. The presence of various drugs of abuse and metabolites in sewage waters from a penal complex was determined by an analytical method based on on-line solid phase extraction-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Levels of consumption indicators measured in this water were used to back-calculate drugs usage in the penal complex. Daily use was observed for methadone (average of 156 doses/day/1000 inh), alprazolam (129 doses/day/1000 inh), ephedrine (46 doses/day/1000 inh), cannabis (33 doses/day/1000 inh.) and cocaine (3 doses/day/1000 inh). Sporadic consumption was observed for heroin, amphetamine, methamphetamine, and ecstasy. In spite of the fact that this and other sewage epidemiological approaches described may suffer from bias that still need to be investigated and refined, it provides near "real-time" information on collective drug use in an anonymous way and constitutes a very useful, economic and fast tool to evaluate the efficiency of measures adopted to control and track drug abuse in this type of facilities (or any other provided that has a STP associated or an accessible collector system).
Postigo C
，de Alda ML
，Barceló D
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Application of a sewage-based approach to assess the use of ten illicit drugs in four Chinese megacities.
Sewage-based epidemiology was applied for the first time to a number of mainland Chinese megacities. The application monitored influents to 9 sewage treatment plants (STPs) to estimate the use of illicit drugs in Beijing, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, and Shanghai. Altogether, 11.4 million inhabitants were covered during September-October 2012. 24-h composite raw sewage samples were collected for 4 consecutive days at each STP. Each collected sample was analyzed for cocaine, benzoylecgonine, ecgonine methylester, methadone, 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine, 6-monoacetylmorphine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, ecstasy, mephedrone, methylenedioxypyrovalerone, 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, ketamine, and norketamine. Through the analysis of these chemical residues, the use of amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine, ecstasy, heroin, mephedrone, methadone, methamphetamine, methylenedioxypyrovalerone and ketamine among Chinese urban inhabitants was monitored. The results obtained demonstrated in a quantitative way that the drug use patterns of Chinese are different from their European counterparts. Abuse of methamphetamine and ketamine was particularly noteworthy in China, while consumption of cocaine and ecstasy, the most popular drugs in Europe, was very low among the sampled Chinese inhabitants. Further, the use of most drugs demonstrated a geographical trend, since their use was much higher in the southern cities of Shenzhen and Guangzhou than it was in Beijing and Shanghai. Interestingly, the exclusive, but minor, metabolite of heroin, 6-monoacetylmorphine, was detected only sporadically. This would suggest that the use of heroin among Chinese urban users sampled in the study was low. Further, the patterns of drug use observed during the study are largely consistent with trends reported by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Overall, our study suggests that sewage-based epidemiology can readily be used to monitor the use of illicit drugs in those countries/regions where traditional means to monitor drug use patterns have only yielded limited or information of questionable reliability.
Khan U
，van Nuijs AL
，Li J
，Maho W
，Du P
，Li K
，Hou L
，Zhang J
，Meng X
，Li X
，Covaci A
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ResearchGate
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