Cytokine, chemokine, and matrix metalloproteinase response after sulfur mustard injury to weanling pig skin.

Cutaneous exposure to sulfur mustard [bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide; SM] produces a delayed inflammatory skin response and severe tissue injury. Pig skin has organ similarities to human skin that is characterized by the content and types of epidermal lipids, the density of hair follicles and presence of sweat glands, which together afford penetration of topically applied compounds, complex inflammatory responses, and subsequent wound healing. The goal of this study was to identify in vivo proinflammatory biomarkers of the SM porcine skin injury within 72 h after SM challenge, using the weanling pig model. Changes in gene expression of inflammatory mediators were examined at 3, 6, 24, 48, and 72 h, using subtraction library analyses and by quantitation of selected transcripts by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Sequence analysis of subtraction libraries identified up-regulation of IL-8 at 24, 48, and 72 h. No other specific proinflammatory gene transcripts were isolated from the libraries. Specific transcript RT-PCR analysis showed increased production of interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-8 (IL-8), and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9, gelatinase B) mRNA levels in response to SM exposure. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) expression was only slightly increased and no change in the levels of expression was observed for monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and MMP-2. This study identifies the main proinflammatory mediators involved in SM-induced skin injury in a weanling pig model. The results suggest transcriptional activity in the inflammatory response proteins IL-8, IL-6, IL-1beta, and MMP-9 and modest changes in TNF-alpha that together produce inflammation and contribute to the pathogenesis of SM dermatotoxicity. Therefore, drugs preventing SM-induced inflammation should be prime candidates for medical intervention to lessen collateral inflammation associated with tissue destruction.

Sabourin CL ，Danne MM ，Buxton KL ，Casillas RP ，Schlager JJ ... -  《JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMICAL AND MOLECULAR TOXICOLOGY》

Alterations in inflammatory cytokine gene expression in sulfur mustard-exposed mouse skin.

Sabourin CL ，Petrali JP ，Casillas RP 《JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMICAL AND MOLECULAR TOXICOLOGY》

Preferential expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 in mouse skin after sulfur mustard exposure.

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), a class of enzymes responsible for the degradation of extracellular matrix proteins, play important roles in inflammatory and immune responses. In skin, MMP-2 (gelatinase A) and MMP-9 (gelatinase B) are normally inactive but can be expressed during tissue injury. Both degrade collagen IV and other critical components of the basement membrane zone that separates the epidermis from the dermis. The expression of MMP-2 and -9 was studied in sulfur mustard (SM)-exposed ear skin from mice to determine their role in tissue vesicant injury. Punch biopsies of mouse ears were collected between 6 and 168 h after exposure to 97.5 mM (0.08 mg) SM diluted in CH(2)Cl(2). They were examined histologically and assayed for MMP-2 and -9 expression by gelatinase activity assays, real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analysis. A time-related increase in overall gelatinase activity was observed in SM-treated ears. At 168 h after SM exposure, the relative levels of MMP-9 mRNA were increased 27-fold and MMP-9 protein 9-fold when compared with the control (CH(2)Cl(2) treated) ears. In contrast, there were no observable increases in the MMP-2 mRNA or protein levels between treated and control ears. These observations suggest the differential expression of MMP-2 and -9 during the cutaneous response to SM injury and suggest a role for MMP-9 in SM-induced injury.

Shakarjian MP ，Bhatt P ，Gordon MK ，Chang YC ，Casbohm SL ，Rudge TL ，Kiser RC ，Sabourin CL ，Casillas RP ，Ohman-Strickland P ，Riley DJ ，Gerecke DR ... -  《JOURNAL OF APPLIED TOXICOLOGY》

JP-8 jet fuel exposure induces inflammatory cytokines in rat skin.

Gallucci RM ，O'Dell SK ，Rabe D ，Fechter LD ... -  《INTERNATIONAL IMMUNOPHARMACOLOGY》

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression and release from skin fibroblasts interacting with keratinocytes: Upregulation in response to sulphur mustard.

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), especially MMP-9 and MMP-2, degrade various proteins of the extracellular matrix, including collagen type IV the major component of basement membranes which also separate the epidermis from the dermis. Although previous work indicates the contribution of MMPs and their inhibitors (TIMPs) to the pathophysiology of skin lesions induced by the toxic chemical warefare agent sulphur mustard (SM), little is known about the underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms. In this study we demonstrate in a 3D-skin model that topical application of SM significantly upregulated basal MMP-9 mRNA expression and release from the cells as shown by qRT-PCR and zymography, whereas that of MMP-2, membrane-type 1 (MT1)-MMP, TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 remained almost unaffected by SM. Further studies in neonatal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDF) and HaCaT keratinocytes revealed that MMP-9 was not secreted from these cells, neither with or without exposure to SM. However, when NHDF and HaCaT were cocultivated, MMP-9 was expressed and released from the cell mixture, suggesting that interaction between both cell types is essential for MMP-9 production. Moreover, SM-treatment of NHDF/HaCaT cocultures further upregulated MMP-9 biosynthesis and secretion, which was consistent with our findings obtained in the 3D-skin model. Addition of conditioned medium derived from SM-exposed HaCaT cells to NHDF was able to stimulate MMP-9 secretion and also increased the migratory potential of NHDF as shown in a scratch-wound healing assay and a fluorescent cell invasion assay. In contrast, culture supernatants of SM-treated NHDF had not such an effect on HaCaT cells. Taken together, our findings provide first evidence that SM exposure of skin stimulates keratinocytes to release soluble factors which in turn induce enhanced MMP-9 secretion and invasiveness of fibroblasts in vitro. This provides a potential mechanism probably contributing to SM-evoked tissue injury in vivo.

Ries C ，Popp T ，Egea V ，Kehe K ，Jochum M ... -  《-》